THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ARAFURA AND TIMOR SEAS

This report is prepared by Yayasan Konservasi Alam Nusantara and Coral Triangle Center for The Arafura and Timor Seas Ecosystem Action Phase 2 (ATSEA-2) Project. November 2020

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ARAFURA AND TIMOR SEAS Copyright © 2020 Arafura and Timor Seas Ecosystem Action Phase 2 (ATSEA-2) Project Author: Yusuf Fajariyanto, Lukman Hakim, and Aldo Restu Agi Prananda Suggested Citation: Fajariyanto, Y., Hakim, L., and Prananda, A.R.A., (2020). The Analysis of Threatened, Charismatic, and Migratory Species Distribution around the Arafura and Timor Seas. Report to the Arafura and Timor Seas Ecosystem Action Phase 2 (ATSEA-2) Project, Yayasan Konservasi Alam Nusantara and Coral Triangle Center, Indonesia. 21pp. Disclaimer: ATSEA-2 Project has published the information contained in this publication to assist public knowledge and discussion, and to help improve the sustainable management of the Arafura and Timor Seas (ATS) region. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of ATSEA-2 implementing partners and its other participating organizations. The designation employed and the presentation do not imply expression of opinion whatsoever on the part of ATSEA-2 concerning the legal status of any country or territory, its authority or the delimitation of its boundaries. Published by: ATSEA-2 Regional Project Management Unit Jl. Mertasari No. 140 Sidakarya, Denpasar 80224, Bali, Indonesia Telephone: +62 361 448 4147 Email: [email protected] Website: https://atsea-program.com/ Cover Image: Foued Kaddachi Printed in Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The biophysical and oceanographical characteristics of the Arafura and Timor Seas (ATS) region make it an ideal habitat for many charismatic marine species, including sea turtles, marine mammals, sharks and birds. Wild populations of these creatures are supported by the region’s capacity to provide feeding, foraging and nesting sites, along with migrating pathways. As a result, the continued presence of these species in ATS waters is dependent on the region’s capacity to provide for them. Six of the world’s seven species of sea turtle – loggerhead, olive Ridley, leatherback, green, flatback and hawksbill – can be found in several parts of the ATS region. These areas do not exist independently of each other; instead, they form a network of habitats connected by well-established migratory pathways. Another type of charismatic species commonly found in the ATS region is marine mammals. At least 30 species of cetacean and one sirenian can be widely found in Indonesia waters, which comprise a major part of the ATS region. Areas in which charismatic marine mammal species regularly occur are referred to as Important Marine Mammal Areas (IMMAs). The distribution of IMMAs tends to cluster around locations such as the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion, Sahul, the Gulf of Carpentaria, and the Torres Strait. However, the majority of these features remain underregulated; with the exception of Australia, where coverage of marine mammal features is considered to be adequate. Hence, all littoral countries in the ATS region must improve their protective coverage of these important areas. Sharks are another charismatic species found in the ATS region, with whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) and grey nurse sharks (Carcharias Taurus) frequently recorded in saltwater habitats. In the estuarine regions of Western Australia, sawfish (a member of the shark and ray family) are also prevalent, with three species variations recorded: dwarf sawfish (Pristis clavate), freshwater sawfish (Pristis pristis) and green sawfish (Pristis zijsron). Various saltwater areas of the ATS region are known to be the aggregating, foraging, breeding and migrating grounds of shark populations. These animals are known to migrate particularly long distances, heading north from Australia to the warm tropical waters of Indonesia. Conversely, freshwater shark populations reside solely in estuarine ecosystems, which serve as the breeding, nurseries, and foraging ground. Although birds are technically considered a land animal, their life cycles are intrinsically linked to the ocean; therefore, their protection is often aggregated with marine conservation. Birdlife International has identified several Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in the ATS region, distributed broadly throughout various territories. The Australian government has released a slightly different dataset, in which seabird populations were separated from those of terrestrial birds; this advanced analysis was used to successfully identify areas of importance for seabirds. The results clearly indicate the importance of small islands and mangrove habitats as key sanctuary sites for seabird species. The data revealed a comprehensive list of seabirds found in such areas, including crested tern (Thalasseus bergii), little tern (Sternula albifrons sinensis) lesser crested tern (Thalasseus bengalensis), lesser frigatebird (Fregata

i

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

ariel), bridled tern (Onychoprion anaethetus), brown booby (Sula leucogaster), common noddy (Anous stolidus), greater frigatebird (Fregata minor), red-footed booby (Sula sula), roseate tern (Sterna dougallii), wedge-tailed shearwater (Ardenna pacifica), and white-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus).

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

ii

CONTENTS Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ i Contents ................................................................................................................................................ iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... iv Tables................................................................................................................................................. iv Chapter 1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2. Analysis of Arafura and Timor Seas Threatened, Charismatic, and Migratory Species Distribution ............................................................................................................................................ 2 Sea Turtles .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Marine Mammals ............................................................................................................................... 9 Sharks ............................................................................................................................................... 14 Birds ...................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 3. Conclusion...........................................................................................................................19 References ............................................................................................................................................ 21

iii

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Marine Country Boundary in ATS region ................................................................................................1 Figure 2. Marine Ecoregion of the World in ATS region ...................................................................................... 2 Figure 3. Marine Protected Area in ATS region .................................................................................................... 3 Figure 4. ATS region Current MPA Coverage by Country .................................................................................... 4 Figure 5. Sea Turtle Nesting Beach and Feeding Ground Distribution in ATS region ......................................... 7 Figure 6. ATS region’s MPA Coverage on Sea Turtles Feature by Country ......................................................... 8 Figure 7. Marine Mammal Feature Distribution in ATS region ........................................................................... 11 Figure 8. ATS region’s MPA Coverage on Marine Mammal Feature by Country ............................................... 12 Figure 9. Shark Distribution in ATS region.......................................................................................................... 14 Figure 10. ATS region’s MPA Coverage on Shark Distribution by Country ........................................................ 15 Figure 11. Bird Feature Distribution in ATS region ............................................................................................... 17 Figure 12. ATS region’s MPA Coverage on Bird Feature by Country ................................................................. 18

TABLES Table 1. MPA Statistics in the ATS region ............................................................................................................. 3 Table 2. Sea Turtles in ATS region ......................................................................................................................... 5 Table 3. Commonly Found Marine Mammals in ATS region ................................................................................ 9 Table 4. IMMAS Intersecting ATS region............................................................................................................. 13 Table 5. IBAS Intersecting ATS region ................................................................................................................ 16

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

iv

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The Arafura and Timor Seas (ATS) are part of the North Australian Shelf large marine ecosystem, a tropical marine area located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The region extends from the Timor Sea to the Torres Strait and includes the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria. Bordering the Coral Triangle, epicenter of the world’s marine biodiversity, the region contains some of the most pristine and highly threatened coastal and marine ecosystems. At the regional scale, the ecosystems of the ATS play an important economic and ecological role in the littoral nations bordering the Arafura and Timor Sea: Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Australia, and Papua New Guinea (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Marine Country Boundary in ATS region

1

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF ARAFURA AND TIMOR SEAS THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION Progress in issues of conservation often hit a wall in the form of jurisdiction. In many cases, the conservation target, threat and solution are merely examined in isolation, within the narrow confines of administrative boundaries. It is sometimes forgotten that the foundation of conservation is an ecological niche, which often transcends administrative borders. To reflect the transboundary nature of the issues and view them appropriately, we used the marine ecoregion of the world (MEOW) layer as a supplementary analytical unit, combined with the conventional administrative boundaries of the ATS region (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Marine Ecoregion of the World (MEOW) in the ATS region

The scope of this profiling step revolves around an examination of the current marine protected areas (MPAs), according to data taken from the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). A number of MPA design projects are also known to have been conducted recently, for which the results (hereafter referred to as MPA AOI and MPA Proposed) are expected to be implemented in due course. To gain a more comprehensive view of current and forthcoming MPA distribution, we compiled data from Indonesia’s Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and related Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (Figure 3). A detailed map of MPAs in the ATS region is presented in Table 1.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

2

Table 1. MPA Statistics in the ATS region MPA AOI MPA Existing No Country (Km2) (Km2) 1

Australia

249802.10

2

Indonesia

13680.50

3

Papua New Guinea

4

Territory to be Defined

5

Timor-Leste

Grand Total

6081.80

MPA Proposed (Km2)

10179.92

906.66

Uncovered (Km2)

Total (Km2)

715814.65

965616.76

476409.65

506351.87

23372.71

24279.37

81117.26

81117.26

935.23

83.17

4592.40

30598.52

36209.32

265324.50

6164.96

14772.32

1327312.80

1613574.58

Figure 3. Marine Protected Area in the ATS region

“By 2020, 10 percent of the cumulative amount of marine area especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.” Aichi Biodiversity Target No. 11

3

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

The data shown in Table 1 illustrate the extent of progress being made towards the Aichi Biodiversity targets mentioned previously. To provide an even clearer indication of progress, MPA statistics were transformed into percentage cover (Figure 4). The graph shows that among all countries, Australia leads the way in terms of the percentage of territory covered by MPAs, with ±28%; followed by Timor-Leste, with ±16%; Indonesia, with ±5%; and PNG, with ±3%. It is worth noting that the percentage figure doesn’t necessarily represent overall Aichi target achievement (or underachievement), but rather focuses on MPA coverage only within the boundaries of the ATS region. This figure would likely appear differently if the entirety of littoral nations’ marine territories were assessed for MPA coverage; instead, this examination only considers marine territories that intersect with the ATS region. For example, while the statistics show a mere 3% of MPA coverage in PNG territory, the percentage of MPA coverage in PNG territorial waters outside the ATS region may be significantly higher. In spite of these limitations, this analysis should still be considered a relevant tool for assessing nations’ activity, jurisdiction and level of responsibility within the ATS region. This analysis is further improved by the inclusion of data related to the distribution of threatened, charismatic and migratory species.

Papua New Guinea

Indonesia

Timor Leste

Territory to be Defined

Australia 0%

10% MPA AOI

20%

30%

MPA Existing

40%

50%

MPA Proposed

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Uncovered

Figure 4. Current MPA coverage (by country) in the ATS region

SEA TURTLES The biophysical and oceanographical conditions of the ATS region make it ideally suitable as a foraging, nesting, and migrating area for many charismatic species, including sea turtles. According to Pilcher (2021), the ATS region is home to six species of sea turtle , including green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and flatback turtle (Natator depressus). All species are listed as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered, and are subject of protection through a number of national legislative instruments and via international conventions (Table 2).

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

4

Table 2. Sea Turtles in ATS region

Common name

Scientific name

Found in ATS Region

IUCN Red List

Loggerhead

Caretta caretta

Yes

Vulnerable

Olive Ridley

Lepidochelys olivacea

Yes

Vulnerable

Leatherback

Dermochelys coriacea

Yes

Vulnerable

Green

Chelonia mydas

Yes

Endangered

Flatback

Natator depressus

Yes

Data Deficient

Hawksbill

Eretmochelys imbricata

Yes

Critically Endangered

Kemp’s Ridley

Lepidochelys kempii

No

Critically Endangered

Green turtles are widely distributed throughout the ATS region, but generally remain in shallow coastal waters. Nesting has been documented all along the northern shores of Australia, on the islands of the Torres Strait and also in the Aru Islands of Indonesia, primarily on Enu Island. There are also green turtle nesting sites in Kaimana, to the northwest extent of Indonesia’s West Papua coast, but little is known or quantified for the remainder of the area. Green turtle nesting has also been reported in East Nusa Tenggara, on the Tanimbar Islands in the Moluccas and on the Kei Islands. Green turtles frequently migrate to other areas, travelling northward into the Indian Ocean, the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas; westward into Western Australia; and eastward towards the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). Green sea turtles in the ATS are the responsibility of a single Regional Management Unit (RMU), with 17 genetically distinct breeding stocks identified foraging in Australian waters. Green turtle aggregations at feeding grounds are often composed of multiple breeding stocks, and turtles can move great distances between foraging areas and nesting sites. There are a number of studies of long-term trends for rookeries in the ATS region, and there remains a need for implementation and ongoing monitoring at key green turtle rookeries to confirm the abundance and trends in numbers of nesters at each key site. Hawksbills nest on various islands scattered throughout the ATS region, but accurate estimates of population size are not currently available. In Indonesia, hawksbill nesting has been reported on the islands of Roti, Dana and Semau in East Nusa Tenggara, and also at the Tanimbar Islands in the Aru Archipelago of the Moluccas. Hawksbill nesting sites have also been found along the Kaimana coast, on offshore islands and in the Aru islands. In PNG, there are several sites where nesting occurs, but the scattered nature of the surveys, and their sporadic duration, are not conducive to an updated assessment of nesting at the national level. In Timor-Leste, Jaco Island and Tutuala beach have been identified as turtle nesting sites. In Australia, hawksbills nest around much of the Northern Territory coastline and on virtually all islands that have sandy beaches (the region may be home to over 5,000 nesters each year). Hawksbill turtles from northeast Australia have been recorded in Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, PNG and elsewhere along the GBR. Hawksbill foraging aggregations are typically mixed stocks of individuals originating from multiple nesting areas, but

5

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

there is also a trend of foraging turtles coming from nearby nesting beaches – that is, with minimal dispersal from hatchling to adult. There are two recognised genetic stocks of hawksbill turtle breeding in Australia and both of these stocks support an annual nesting population of several thousand females. Comprehensive data on hawksbill nesting trends are not available within the ATS region, given the lack of long-term studies on these smaller rookeries. Hawksbill turtles are difficult to monitor for a number of reasons: first, small numbers of hawksbills nest on a wide variety of beaches across a broad geographic area; second, hawksbill beaches tend to be remote, inaccessible and sometimes so narrow that the turtle leaves no crawl trace; and third, hawksbill turtles exhibit significant year-to-year fluctuations in nesting numbers, so that single year counts cannot be used to determine trends. Loggerheads are widespread throughout ATS waters, but there is no breeding by loggerhead turtles recorded in northern Australia, Indonesia, PNG or Timor-Leste. Substantial movement has been documented of post-nesting loggerhead turtles into foraging areas in the ATS, following routes along the western and northern coasts of Australia, and assumed foraging areas primarily in waters off north Australia. Loggerheads of the southeast Indian Ocean are treated as a single RMU, and this includes nesting turtles from Western Australia and foraging turtles throughout the ATS region. Existing data are insufficient for illustrating overall population trends. Leatherback sea turtles migrate through ATS waters, with a handful of nesters using beaches in northern Australia. The leatherback turtle does not nest elsewhere in the ATS region. Leatherbacks from PNG or Indonesia generally do not move into the ATS region, but a small proportion of leatherbacks do move down into the Arafura Sea. The west Pacific leatherback turtle is considered a single RMU; instances of nesting in Australia have been in continuous decline, similar to the situation in PNG. Olive ridley turtles are relatively abundant in the ATS region, where they nest on beaches in Australia, Indonesia and Timor-Leste. However, nesting is widely dispersed and of low volume, and sometimes confused with hawksbill turtle nesting. There are records of olive ridley turtles from West Papua moving into the Arafura Sea, and others that show how Australian olive ridley turtles may remain in Australian waters. The genetics and connectivity of these populations are highly structured; Australian and east Indonesian olive ridleys share many of the same haplotypes, but also display substantial differences. There are currently no long-term studies on the olive ridley in the ATS region and no indication of population trends. The flatback turtle is unique in that is nests only in Australia, with some northward distribution of foraging grounds. Foraging flatbacks have been encountered in neighbouring PNG and Indonesia, but no nesting records for this species exist in those countries. Due to their nonoceanic nature, whereby flatback turtles are restricted to Australian waters and those of southern PNG and Indonesia, the migration and habitat connectivity data for this species is limited mostly to the Australian continental shelf and the Timor Sea. Genetic structuring of flatback turtle populations comprises seven genetic stocks, with geographic boundaries of rookeries varying from 160km to 1,300km. Population sizes appear to be stable at present. The available spatial data regarding sea turtle migratory pathways cover three species: green, leatherback and olive ridley (Figure 5). This data connects the nodes from the scattered turtle nesting beaches, following certain oceanographic current patterns throughout the ocean. Some

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

6

species, such as the olive ridley, travel around one ocean region; other species, such as green and leatherback turtles, travel globally across several oceans at once. Although track data is still lacking for certain species, Boyle et al (2017) state that leatherback turtles are known to forage and migrate throughout Australia. The other species' exact pathways are still missing, but sightings on land during the peak of the nesting season have confirmed their existence and given a rough idea of their whereabouts.

Figure 5. Sea Turtle Nesting Beach and Feeding Ground Distribution in the ATS region

The most important part of this area is its beaches. Unlike other charismatic marine species that only roam around large bodies of water, sea turtles still require space on the land for the purpose of laying and hatching. They also need to get close to coastal areas in order to feed, mainly on seagrass. This results in a correlation between sea turtle foraging behaviour and shallow water habitat distribution. Sea turtles migrate from one coast to another, during which time they eat, breed and live out their relatively long natural lives. Although they have a naturally long lifespan, sea turtles face many threats to survival. As a whole, species’ vulnerability lies in factors such as late maturation, high rates of mortality among hatchlings and small juveniles, strong fidelity to breeding areas, migrating over long distances, and dependence on both terrestrial and marine environments to complete their lifecycle (Boyle et al., 2017). Sea turtles continuously repeat their reproduction cycle, returning to the same breeding sites every year. Each breeding community therefore represents an unbroken line of genetic stock and a unique, irreplaceable lineage of evolutionary history. Due to these traits, recovery from population decline is extremely slow. To make matters worse, certain coastal communities in Indonesia continue to poach sea turtle eggs and hunt them for their shells. Two separate participatory mapping schemes conducted in the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion (in

7

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

2011 and 2015) identified poaching activities taking place in Upunyor, Klis and Werwawan Village, Southwest Maluku. Another threat to sea turtle survival is the increasing urban sprawl of coastal areas, causing light pollution and putting added pressure on nesting sites. Furthermore, sea levels continue to rise, wiping out sea turtle nesting sites that have existed for countless generations. Excessive coastal development also degrades important turtle habitats such as seagrass, which is the main diet of most sea turtle species. This development also pollutes the water, while adding more marine debris that can poison, ensnare or otherwise endanger the lives of sea turtles.

Timo Territory r Papua to be Lest New Defined e Indonesia Guinea

Currently, sea turtle habitats are being conserved through MPAs operated by each member country of the ATS region. Existing MPA coverage of sea turtle features is shown in Figure 6. This graph shows that, among all countries in the ATS region, Australia leads the way in terms of targeting conservation plans to secure important sea turtle features. While Indonesia’s nesting beaches are considerably well-covered, migratory pathways are yet to be secured. This feature is generally overlooked by the other countries, meaning immediate action is sorely needed. Turtle Nesting Beach Migratory Corridor Turtle Turtle Nesting Beach Migratory Corridor Turtle Migratory Corridor Turtle Sea Turtle Important Area Migratory Corridor Turtle

Australia

Turtle Nesting Beach Turtle Feeding Ground Sea Turtle Important Area Migratory Corridor Turtle 0% MPA AOI

10%

20%

MPA Existing

30%

40%

MPA Proposed

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Uncovered

Figure 6. MPA coverage of sea turtle features by country in the ATS region

In Australia, a specific scheme for sea turtle preservation has been launched, covering a 10-year period of implementation, from 2017-2027. However, the most pressing concern in terms of turtle conservation efforts is their connectivity; because turtles’ migratory patterns, foraging grounds and nesting sites are dispersed far and wide, it is easy for them to travel beyond the boundaries of protective areas. Therefore, multiple destinations must be connected, following the route of migratory pathways and including nesting beaches as nodes in a cohesive network of protected areas. Currently, migratory pathways often intersect with shipping lanes. It is unrealistic to expect or demand major disruptions to human activity, since the global economy depends on it. However, solutions could involve a few relatively trivial regulations in certain critical places, such as cautionary protocols (speed limits) for passing vessels, safe use of anchors, controls on cesspool load, etc. Ideally, further study should be conducted to measure the impacts of each of these aspects, then appropriate counter measures can be integrated into regulation.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

8

Implementing such measures would present a number of transboundary problems, since MPA arrangement and shipping regulations can only be applied independently by each government. In such cases, the ATSEA-2 Programme offers a valuable forum through which littoral nations of the ATS region can address common challenges and devise collaborative solutions to transboundary issues.

MARINE MAMMALS Other types of charismatic species commonly found in the ATS region include marine mammals. A list made by Wagey et al (2008) describes a total of at least 30 cetaceans and one sirenian species in Indonesian waters, which constitute a major part of the ATS region. Table 3. Commonly Found Marine Mammals in ATS region No.

Order

Species

Common Name

1

Balaenoptera acutorostrata

Common minke whale

2

Balaenoptera borealis

Sei whale

3

Balaenoptera edeni

4

Balaenopteridae

Balaenoptera brydei

Bryde’s whale

5

Balaenoptera musculus

Blue whale

6

Balaenoptera physalus

Fin whale

7

Megaptera novaeangliae

Humpback whale

8

Delphinus capensis

Long-beaked common dolphin

9

Delphinus delphis

Common dolphin

10

Feresa attenuata

Pygmy killer whale

11

Globicephala macrorhynchus

Short-finned pilot whale

Grampus griseus

Risso’s dolphin

13

Lagenodelphis hosei

Fraser’s dolphin

14

Orcaella brevirostris

Irrawaddy dolphin

Orcinus orca

Killer whale

Peponocephala electra

Melon-headed whale

17

Pseudorca crassidens

False killer whale

18

Sousa Chinensis

Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin

19

Stenella attenuata

Pantropical spotted dolphin

20

Stenella coeruleoalba

Striped dolphin

21

Stenella longirostris

Spinner dolphin

22

Steno bredanensis

Rough-toothed dolphin

23

Tursiop truncatus

Common bottlenose dolphin

12

15 16

9

Family

|

Cetacea

Delphinidae

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

No.

Order

24

Family Kogiidae

25

Species

Common Name

Kogia breviceps

Pygmy sperm whale

Kogia simus

Dwarf sperm whale

26

Phocoenidae

Neophocaena phocaenoides

Finless porpoise

27

Physeteridae

Physeter macrocephalus

Sperm whale

Mesoplodon sp

Beaked whale

Ziphius cavirostris

Cuvier’s beaked whale

Hyperoodon sp

Bottlenose whale

Dugong dugon

Dugong

28 29

Ziphiidae

30 31

Sirenia

Dugongidae

Unlike sea turtles, marine mammals spend their entire lives in the ocean. While some are confined to specific areas, certain others live a migratory life. Their cycle of feeding, breeding, nursing and migrating are mostly conducted offshore (with dugong being an exception). However, these animals occasionally travel to coastal and estuarine areas in pursuit of prey. The diets of both whales and dolphins revolve around hunting for smaller fish and cephalopods. Meanwhile, the dugong has a specific diet of seagrass, which makes it especially vulnerable to changes in habitat caused by climate change and other marine threats. Unfortunately, even with today's progress on marine science in the ATS region, several knowledge gaps remain – especially in the ecology and conservation status of marine mammals. The data on population estimates, vulnerability, habitat range and behaviour are still missing in some species (Wiadnyana, 2004). Using the resources available, we gathered dolphin, whale and dugong data related to biologically important areas, important marine mammal areas (IMMA), cetacean migratory corridors and species sightings. It is worth noting that, although certain types of data (including sightings and the biologically important areas) showed sporadic distribution and only covered certain areas of the ATS region, they can still help us understand the bigger picture.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

10

Figure 7. Marine Mammal Feature Distribution in the ATS region

The distribution of IMMA occurs in various places, including the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion, Sahul, the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Strait. Figure 8 shows that the majority of marine mammal features remain underregulated. Despite Australia’s adequate coverage, the rest of the features in other countries are still poorly covered. Even though species sighting (as an indicator of range habitat) passed the cover target in Indonesia and Timor-Leste, there may still be undocumented or even missed sightings (because of sporadic distribution), resulting in lower percentage coverage than expected. Data related to IMMAs provides a clearer indication of how Indonesia, Timor-Leste and PNG should expand their MPA coverage (https://www.marinemammalhabitat.org/). To better understand what’s available and what’s missing in terms of MPA coverage in IMMA, Table 4 and Figure 8 are presented accordingly.

11

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

Papua New Guinea

Whale Important Area Important Marine Mammal Areas Whale Important Area

Indonesia

Sighting Whale Sighting Dugong Sighting Dolphin Migratory Corridor Cetacea Important Marine Mammal Areas

Timor Leste

Whale Important Area Sighting Whale Sighting Dolphin Migratory Corridor Cetacea

Territory to be Defined

Important Marine Mammal Areas Whale Important Area Important Marine Mammal Areas

Australia

Whale Important Area Important Marine Mammal Areas Dugong Important Area Dolphin Important Area 0% MPA AOI

10%

MPA Existing

20%

30%

40%

MPA Proposed

50%

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

Uncovered

Figure 8. Marine mammal feature distribution (by country) in the ATS region

It is imperative that existing MPAs could do more to protect marine mammals in the ATS region. Various strategic species occur in these IMMA, but when coverage doesn’t exceed 20% this would suggest that some species in the ATS region’s IMMA are being left out. Before proceeding to the planning stage, it is important to recall that some marine mammals possess similar traits with sea turtles in terms of migratory patterns. This would imply interconnectivity between areas, thereby triggering the transboundary problem. Therefore, conservation schemes concerning marine mammals should be conducted in a collaborative manner.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

12

Table 4. IMMAS Intersecting ATS region IMMA

Species

Region

Criteria

Central and Western Torres Strait IMMA

Dugong dugon; Sousa sahulensis; Orcaella heinsohni

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities; Criterion D - Special Attributes

Northwestern Australian Coastal Waters and Inlets IMMA

Sousa sahulensis; Dugong dugon; Orcaella heinsohni; Tursiops aduncus

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion B - Distribution and Abundance; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities; Criterion D - Special Attributes

Mapoon to Aurukun IMMA

Orcaella heinsohni; Sousa sahulensis

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion B - Distribution and Abundance

Gourdon Bay to Bigge Island IMMA

Megaptera novaeangliae

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion B - Distribution and Abundance; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities

Eastern Indian Ocean Blue Whale Migratory Route IMMA

Balaenoptera musculus

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities

Southern Gulf of Carpentaria IMMA

Dugong dugon; Orcaella heinsohni

Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Indian Ocean

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities

The Savu Sea and Surrounding Areas IMMA

Physeter macrocephalus, Stenella longirostris, Peponocephala electra, Lagenodelphis hosei, Balaenoptera musculus, Tursiops aduncus

Northeast Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian Seas

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion B - Distribution and Abundance; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities; Criterion D - Special Attributes

Dugong dugon

Northeast Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian Seas

Criterion A - Species or Population Vulnerability; Criterion B - Distribution and Abundance; Criterion C - Key Life Cycle Activities

Eastern Lesser Sunda Islands and Timor Coast IMMA

13

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

SHARKS Sharks belong to the elasmobranch fish group, characterised by a cartilaginous skeleton. The other unique features of the shark are its two visible gill slits towards the rear of the head and its pectoral fins. The cartilaginous skeleton of the modern shark means it is classified together with rays within the clade Selachimorpha. Many charismatic shark species rank highest on the food chain, identifying them as the apex predator of the ocean. Within the ATS region, important shark species recorded in saltwater habitats includes whale shark (Rhincodon typus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and grey nurse shark (Carcharias Taurus). In the estuarine environments of Western Australia, three variations of sawfish (a member of the shark and ray family) have been recorded: the dwarf sawfish (Pristis clavate), freshwater sawfish (Pristis pristis) and green sawfish (Pristis zijsron). The saltwater shark areas found in the ATS region are known to be used for aggregating, foraging, breeding and migrating. These sharks are known to migrate particularly long distances, up to the tropical waters of Indonesia. Meanwhile, the freshwater shark can be found in estuarine ecosystems, which serve as nurseries and foraging grounds.

Figure 9. Shark Distribution in the ATS region

Although shark distribution data is by no means as extensive as other layers, Figure 9 still illustrates the ways in which Western Australia is connected to Indonesia; feature distribution also indicates the effectiveness of existing MPAs, especially in terms of their shark protection. Figure 10 indicates that Australia is leading the way in terms of feature coverage, exceeding 20% in all available features; meanwhile, Indonesia and Timor-Leste most certainly could do better in securing shark features, since their coverage remains below 20%; where the ATS region intersects with PNG, there don’t seem to be any shark features recorded in the gathered data, although this doesn’t mean that sharks cannot be found there.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

14

Territory to be Defined

Timor Leste Indonesia

The fishing industry poses a major threat to shark populations in the ATS region, where shark finning continues in several communities. Participatory data gathered in the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion found that Merbaun, Buraen and Kualin Village in Kupang Regency still practice this activity. Another threat to sharks is bycatch. Fishing gear will often inadvertently catch juvenile sharks, exacerbating population decline. However, the fact that human activity is the main cause of shark population decline is exactly the reason why these populations can be restored; through human intervention in the form of appropriate regulations (Thresher Shark Indonesia, 2020).

Migratory Corridor Whale Shark

Migratory Corridor Whale Shark

Migratory Corridor Whale Shark

Australia

Shark Important Area

River Shark Important Area

Migratory Corridor Whale Shark 0% MPA AOI

10%

MPA Existing

20%

30%

40%

MPA Proposed

50%

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

Uncovered

Figure 10. MPA coverage in relation to shark distribution (by country)

BIRDS Although birds are technically considered a land animal, the ocean plays a central role in their life cycles. To escape winter weather, many species migrate from subtropical regions into tropical areas by crossing the sea. To travel such long distances, birds need a place to rest. They also need a stable supply of food to survive the migratory period. Coastal areas are therefore the preferred habitat for roosting, nesting and foraging, while mangrove trees provide a solid footing in which the birds can roost safely. Their close proximity to the water also makes it easier to fish for food. Birdlife International has identified several IBAs in the ATS region (Table 5). Based on numerous criteria, IBAs are locations which have been recognised as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations. These criteria also involve the location of threatened and endemic species, in line with conservation and representation objectives.

15

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

Table 5. IBAS Intersecting ATS region INTNAME COUNTRY

SITRECID 24819

Kakadu Savanna

INTNAME COUNTRY

SITRECID AUS

23450

Port McArthur Tidal Wetlands System Pearce, Urquhart and

15990

Pegunungan Daab – Boo

IDN

23451

AUS AUS

Hervey Islands (Sir Edward Pellew Group)

15792 15791

Jaco Island

TLS

Mount Paitchau and Lake

TLS

Iralalaro

23452 23453

Tiwi Islands

AUS

Legune (Joseph Bonaparte

AUS

Bay)

15790

Lore

TLS

23455

Bountiful Islands

AUS

15991

Pulau Kobroor

IDN

23459

Manowar and Rocky Islands

AUS

15992

Pulau Baun

IDN

23871

Gulf Plains

AUS

22105

Seagull Island (Tiwi Islands)

AUS

23915

Adele Island

AUS

22522

Cadell and Blyth Floodplains

AUS

23917

Booby Island (Kimberley)

AUS

22523

Milingimbi Islands

AUS

23921

Low Rocks and Sterna Island (Kimberley)

AUS

23408

Buckingham Bay

AUS

23948

Ashmore Reef

AUS

23409

Blue Mud Bay

AUS

24834

Prince Regent and Mitchell River

AUS

23410

Haul Round Island

AUS

15796

Areia Branca no Dolok Oan

TLS

23411

Higginson Island

AUS

16256

Be Malae

TLS

23412

Three Hummocks Island

AUS

15797

Irabere – Iliomar

TLS

23413

Arafura Swamp

AUS

15794

Maubara

TLS

Hyland Bay and Moyle

AUS

16257

Subaun

TLS

15830

Sungai Klere

TLS

15795

Tasitolu

TLS

15825

Tilomar

TLS

15964

Kateri – Maubesi

IDN

23426

Floodplain Anson Bay, Daly,

23427

AUS

and Reynolds River Floodplains

23428

Fog Bay and Finniss River Floodplains

AUS

23429

Shoal Bay (Darwin)

AUS

23430

Adelaide and Mary River Floodplains

AUS

23434

Alligator Rivers Floodplains

AUS

15959

Manipo

IDN

23447

Limmen Bight

AUS

15993

Pulau Larat

IDN

23448

Islet off NE Grooyte Eylandt AUS

15999

Kepulauan Lemola

IDN

Sandy Island and 23449

AUS

Low Rock (Gulf of Carpentaria)

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

16

The IBAs are distributed throughout the ATS region. The Australian government has released a slightly different dataset, in which seabirds have been separated from general bird populations; advanced analysis was performed, resulting in an assessment of seabird important areas (Figure 11. It is clear how small island and mangrove habitats become a key sanctuary for seabird species. The data produced a list of seabirds found in those areas, including crested tern (Thalasseus bergii), little tern (Sternula albifrons sinensis) lesser crested tern (Thalasseus bengalensis), lesser frigatebird (Fregata ariel), bridled tern (Onychoprion anaethetus), brown booby (Sula leucogaster), common noddy (Anous stolidus), greater frigatebird (Fregata minor), red-footed booby (Sula sula), roseate tern (Sterna dougallii), wedge-tailed shearwater (Ardenna pacifica) and white-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus). Different from the migratory kind, the seabirds recorded in this dataset mostly reside, breed and forage within the ATS region.

Figure 11. Bird Feature Distribution in the ATS region

17

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

Timor Leste Indonesia

Important Bird Area

Important Bird Area

Australia

Seabird Important Area

Important Bird Area

0%

10%

MPA AOI

20%

30%

MPA Existing

40%

50%

MPA Proposed

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Uncovered

Figure 12. MPA coverage of bird features in the ATS region (by country)

The current protection of bird features is significantly better than previously, as bird protection has a generally longer and more developed history when compared to other species. Part of the reason is the community established around bird watching. On other hand, species sightings in marine territories do not come easily, due to challenges in access and higher costs of encounters. That being said, the protection of birds appears to meet the minimum target for conservation (Figure 12). However, a few advanced steps may still need to be taken in order to refine and ensure protected area coverage is evenly distributed.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

18

CHAPTER 3. CONCLUSION The ATS region is an important habitat for many threatened, charismatic and migratory marine species like sea turtles, marine mammals, sharks and birds. Australia, Indonesia and Timor-Leste are the countries with the greatest abundance of these species. A total of six sea turtle species can be found in the ATS region, namely the green, hawksbill, loggerhead, leatherback, olive ridley and flatback. Three of these species have migratory pathways that intersect with the ATS: green, leatherback and olive ridley. These pathways connect the nodes in a scattered network of turtle nesting beaches, following certain current patterns throughout the ocean. The ATS region is also the largest known sanctuary for green, hawksbill and loggerhead turtle nesting aggregations. However, threats such as coastal development, egg poaching, urban sprawl and rising sea levels threaten the survival of these species. Further MPA design is therefore essential to the conservation of these animals in the ATS region. Regarding marine mammal species, at least 30 cetacean species and one sirenian can be found in Indonesian waters, which constitute a major part of the ATS region. IMMAs are clustered in various locations around the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion, along with Sahul, the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Strait. To date, there remain gaps in protective networks designed to support these creatures, which means that further collaborative study and MPA designation is required. Within the ATS region, important shark species recorded in saltwater habitats include whale shark (Rhincodon typus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and grey nurse shark (Carcharias Taurus). In the estuarine areas of Western Australia, sawfish varieties such as dwarf (Pristis clavate), freshwater (Pristis pristis) and green (Pristis zijsron) can also be found. Australia is leading the way in terms of feature coverage, exceeding 20% in all available features. Meanwhile, Indonesia and Timor-Leste could certainly do better in their attempts to secure shark features, since their coverage remains below 20%. A major threat to shark populations is shark finning, which still persists in several communities. A total of 12 species of seabird can be found in the ATS region, where small islands and mangroves provide a sanctuary for many seabird species. IBAs are distributed widely, although the majority can be found in Australia. Conservation efforts for seabirds are considered to be comparatively more straightforward than for other species, because many bird watching communities or protective societies have already been established. As a result, the protection of birds appears to meet the minimum target for conservation. Threatened, charismatic and migratory species in the ATS region can only be conserved effectively if the MPAs designed for their protection by the four littoral nations are operated in a cohesive, complementary way. It is worth remembering that the foundation of conservation is an ecological niche, which often transcends administrative borders. However, many of the current problems facing these species relate to limitations in connectivity, exacerbated by an anthropocentric view of the area that focuses on its political borders and jurisdictions. Several feature locations (which often cross administrative boundaries) are

19

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

connected by animals’ migratory pathways, current patterns, etc., and should therefore be addressed with an approach that is equally transboundary in its form, function and scope. Although progress is being made in the form of MPA coverage, without continued and improved cooperation between littoral nations and regulatory bodies, such conservation schemes stand little chance of success. The conclusion of this report is therefore that the key to achieving conservation targets in the ATS region depends on the willingness and capacity of littoral nations to coordinate their efforts effectively. The ATSEA-2 Programme offers a forum through which littoral nations of the ATS region can address common challenges and devise collaborative solutions to transboundary issues.

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

|

20

REFERENCES

Alongi, D.M., K. Edyvane, do Ceu Guterres, W.S. Pranowo, S. Wirasantosa, and R. Wasson (2011) Biophysical profile of the Arafura and Timor Seas. Report prepared for the Arafura Timor Seas Ecosystem Action (ATSEA) Program. 32p. Bateman, S and Bergin, A. (2011) The maritime interests of Timor-Leste in A reliable partner: Strengthening Australia – Timor-Leste relations. Special Report 39, ASPI. Boyle, M., Fitzsimons, N., and Merwe J. (2017) Recovery plan for marine turtles in Australia 2017 – 2027. Australian Government Department of the Environmental and Energy Burke, L., K. Reytar, M. Spalding, and A. Perry (2011) Reefs at Risk Revisited. World Resources Institute, Washington DC. https://www.birdlife.org/ https://www.marinemammalhabitat.org/ Hutomo, M & Moosa, M.K. 2005. Indonesia marine and coastal biodiversity: Present status. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, vol 34(1). Pp 88-97. Pilcher NJ. 2021. Status of sea turtles in the Arafura and Timor Seas. PEMSEA ATSEA-2 Project. Coral Triangle Center, Bali, Indonesia. 54 pp. Wagey, T., Arifin, Z., LIPI, MMAF, UNDP, CoML (2008) Marine biodiversity review of the Arafura and Timor Seas. Wagey, G. A., Nurhakim, S., Nikijuluw, V. P. H., Badrudin and Pitcher, T.J. (2009) A study of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia. Report to FAO, Rome. Wiadnyana, Ngurah N & Purnomo, Februanty & Faizah, Ria & Mustika, P. Liza & Oktaviani, Dita & Wahyono, Maria. (2004). Aquatic mammals assessment in Indonesian waters. Wirasantosa, S., S. Nurhakim, L. Adrianto, D. Nugroho, C. dos Santos Silva (2011) ATSEA Thematic Reports on the Arafura and Timor Seas Region. Report prepared for the Arafura Timor Seas Ecosystem Action (ATSEA) Program. 263ps

21

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ATS

1

|

THE ANALYSIS OF THREATENED SPECIES, CHARISMATIC, AND MIGRATORY SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ARAFURA AND TIMOR SEA

ATSEA-2