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CONSUMER LOYALTY AMONGST SPORT FANS - PURE Flipbook PDF
consumer loyalty amongst sport fans agf case study author - david johnston dj41562
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CONSUMER LOYALTY AMONGST SPORT FANS
AGF CASE STUDY
AUTHOR - DAVID JOHNSTON DJ41562
PROBLEM STATEMENT… … … … … … … … … … … … .4 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................... 6 LOYALTY ...................................................................... 6 LOYALTY MEASUREMENT ..................................... 7 DEFINING AND MEASURING LOYALTY IN RELATION TO SPORTS SUPPORTERS .................. 8 SPORTS SUPPORTERS ............................................... 8 THE “BIRGING” PHENOMENON ......................... 11 THE SPORTS “FAN” DEFINED ............................... 12 FAN CHARACTERISTICS ........................................ 14 SPORTS FANS – IRRATIONAL ? ............................ 18 MOTIVES FOR ATTENDANCE ............................... 18 BRAND KEYS – LOYALTY DRIVERS ................... 20 SPORTING CLUBS – LOYALTY PROGRAMS ..... 21 CASE STUDY ................................................................... 24 AGF CLUB.................................................................... 24 HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT ................................... 26 FAN LOYALTY GENERATION & MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................ 26 OLIVERS FRAMEWORK ......................................... 27 VILLAGE ENVELOPMENT ..................................... 28 IMMERSED SELF IDENTITY .................................. 32 SATISFACTION AND THE SPORTS FAN ............. 38 HYPOTHESES ................................................................. 40 THE STUDY ................................................................. 45 RESULTS .......................................................................... 48 ANOVA RESULTS ...................................................... 56 RESULTS – BASIC FINDINGS ................................. 57 HYPOTHESES - OLIVERS FRAMEWORK ........... 58
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HYPOTHESES - SATISFACTION/ LOYALTY RELATIONSHIP.......................................................... 61 DISCUSSION.................................................................... 62 SOCIAL FACTORS..................................................... 62 IDENTIFICATION ...................................................... 63 THE SATISFACTION/ LOYALTY RELATIONSHIP ........................................................................................ 68 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................... 69 APPENDIX ....................................................................... 72 REFERENCE LIST.......................................................... 78 Web Sites ....................................................................... 81 Secondary sources......................................................... 82
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PROBLEM STATEMENT Sports have become an increasingly important part of our society. Across a wide variety of cultures popularity in spectator sports continues to grow and grow both in terms of attendance figures and ticket purchasing expenditure (Capella 2001) From a consumer behaviour perspective sports supporters are somewhat unique, while long-term loyalty is a concept that is fading rapidly in most consumer settings (Schriver 1997) , sports followers do genuinely seem to care about showing loyalty towards their chosen sporting club (Tapp 2003, p1) Due to these anomalies between consumers of sports and other products, Professional sporting Clubs are becoming aware of the need to differentiate sport supporters from other consumers and to examine them as a unique group. While the research into the sports supporter has been quite substantial in the last 10 years, a full understanding of sport consumer behaviour is far from acquired. The particular focus of this paper are the most loyal group of supporters connected to a club, the clubs “fans”. These are the supporters characterized by a tendency to continue attending games season after season regardless of their teams fortunes. From a marketing an management perspective a greater understanding of this fan segment is required as this highly profitable group makes up the core of the clubs support, are highly visible and vocal and thus have a significant influence on the clubs profile and profitability. A key question facing sports marketing management is how to develop, maintain and grow loyalty within this segment, not just amongst successful sporting teams but also to sporting teams with inferior or losing records.
The growing body of literature on the sports fan is in the main focused on the effects of fandom, for example, the violence and aggression associated with being a fan.(Jacobsen 2003). Covered in much less detail are the underlying motives that drive the sports fans behaviour and how the sports fan can best be managed. The purpose of this assignment is to further the research with regard to the loyalty of the sporting fan . Efforts will be made to divulge whether the “fan” group is a desirable support segment and to uncover the significant influences and drivers that come into play in creating the sports fan.
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In particular the study will look to establish whether the loyalty of the committed fan stems solely from factors directly related to the sporting club and contest or whether outside influences have a role to play. A further area that will be examined is the role of satisfaction in the behaviour and loyalty of the sporting fan. In general consumer settings satisfaction has been shown to be necessary ingredient, yet not sufficient in itself, to generate loyalty. A glancing look at sporting fans would appear to indicate the satisfaction/loyalty relationship being of even greater complexity than in general settings. Fans would appear to often remain loyal during periods when the team is unsuccessful, instances in which one would assume satisfaction with the club would wane. A further purpose of the study is therefore to examine the function, if any, of satisfaction in the generation of sporting fan loyalty.
In attempting to answer these questions it is hoped that some insight can be drawn as to handling and development of this specific segment of a sporting clubs support base. In order to explore these topics Aarhus’s only current Super league entrant -AGF football Club will be used as a case study. AGF are perhaps an ideal club to examine when looking at the sporting fan due to the clubs recent lack of on-field success and the various problems that have been experienced with the organisations support base
Based on the findings from the case study, the paper will then explore how AGF and other sporting clubs can best cater to the needs of the fan group, and how this group can be managed in the most effective and profitable manner.
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LITERATURE REVIEW LOYALTY In recent times it has become apparent that consumer loyalty is a vital area of performance for the modern company. Attracting and keeping loyal customers has become a key objective for firms due to the long run profits that loyal consumers provide.
Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) define brand loyalty as ‘ The behavioural outcome of a customer’s preference for a particular brand from a selection of similar brands over a period of time, which, importantly is the result of an evaluative decision making process. ’
Oliver (1997) offers the following definition “a deeply held commitment to re-buy or repatronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same brand or same brand set purchasing, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour”
In general there are three ways in which to define (and subsequently measure) loyalty:
1. Behavioural Definitions 2. Attitudinal Definitions 3. Composite Definitions
The behavioural definitions consider the consistent repetitious purchases or other behaviour as indicators of loyalty. The Attitudinal definition defines loyalty through intentions, preferences or emotions or psychological attachment felt by the individual which is expected to drive behaviour. Composite definitions of loyalty such as that given by Oliver above acknowledge that loyalty is a multi-dimensional concept and combine both behaviour and attitudes when attempting to define loyalty. Most current studies on customer loyalty favour a composite definition of customer loyalty.
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LOYALTY MEASUREMENT Measurement of loyalty is of cause dependent on how the term is defined, as discussed there are three methods for defining loyalty thus three methods for measurement
Behavioural Measurements Attitudinal Measurements Composite Measurements
Behavioural Measurements In measuring behaviour one can either measure actual behaviour or behavioural intentions. The most basic indicator of consumer loyalty behaviour involves looking at actual retention rates of current customers. As mentioned in the first section, customer retention is possibly the most important aspect of loyalty as it is customer retention that to a large extent determines business revenues in the next time period.
Measuring Attitudes There are a number of methods that companies can use to delve a little deeper into the psyche of their customers to establish why they behave in a particular manner and to help better predict their future behaviour. Loyalty attitudes are softer measures as they are based on consumer opinions and feelings and there will often be a contradiction between the way an individual feels and they way they act. The only way to fully examine customer loyalty attitudes is through addressing key areas of market research the primary tool of which has been the questionnaire.
Composite Measures Using both Attitudes and Behaviours researchers have developed models to generate a loyalty index score for each individual. Due to the measurement and operational constraints in attitudinal and behavioural definitions, the composite approach has been widely supported as the more holistic method to define brand loyalty (eg Backmann & Crompton 1991??)
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Satisfaction and Loyalty In general consumer settings satisfaction has been shown to be a major influence on consumer loyalty. The traditional model of model hypothesizes that satisfaction is the sole driver of loyalty
Customer Satisfaction >>>>>Æ Customer Loyalty
However more recent studies have shown this concept to be too simplistic. Most recent studies have shown a non-linear asymmetric relationship between satisfaction and customer loyalty (Bowen & Chen 2000).
DEFINING AND MEASURING LOYALTY IN RELATION TO SPORTS SUPPORTERS While there are many facets of the professional sports supporters and the professional sports market that make it a unique proposition when examining consumer loyalty, consumer loyalty to a particular club or team can be defined and measured in much the same way as with loyalty to other goods and services. As has been discussed consumer loyalty can be defined in terms of a behavioural component and also in terms of an attitudinal component. With respect to sports consumers the behavioural component of loyalty involves factors such as ticket and merchandise purchasing and television viewing numbers. The attitudinal component on the other hand examines consumer opinions and feelings towards a team.
SPORTS SUPPORTERS
The fanaticism and intense partisanship shown by sporting fans has lead to the conventional wisdom that sports supporters exhibit undying loyalty to their chosen sports clubs.
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Quotes such as the following typify the stereotype of the sports supporter
“ Marriages come and go, so do jobs, hometowns, friendships, but a guys attachment to a sports team?, There’s a bond that holds the heart!” USA Today, the US’s largest daily newspaper (Eisler 1997)
These widely held beliefs with regard to sport fan loyalty are in the main based on the observed behavioural loyalty of sports supporters and their tendency to often remain loyal when following low quality or inferior sporting teams. Although there are many behaviours that may be an expression of loyalty (eg Television viewing, radio listening, team merchandise purchases), prior research has relied heavily on attendance data to measure supporter loyalty of sports teams (Mahony 2000) In this area evidence of the strength of sport supporter loyalty is abundant. Through out the professional sporting world there are several examples of clubs whose supporters have remained behaviourally loyal (continued to attend games) despite an unsuccessful or poorly performing team. A fine example of this phenomenon involves Manchester City Football Club now of the English Premier League. Despite relegation from the premier league in the 95/96 season and further relegation to division 2 in the 97/98 season the club maintained its spectator numbers of close to 30,000 in Division 2, a league where crowds of 3000-5,000 are more common. Manchester City Average league attendance and division 94/95 through to 99/00 season (league placing in brackets)
FIG 1
Season
League position
Average Home Attendance
94/95 Premier League 17th
22,725
95/96 Premier League 18th- relegated
27,869
96/97 Division 1
14th
26,753
97/98 Division 1
22nd relegated
28,196
98/99 Division 2
3rd promoted
28,261
99/00 Division 1
2nd– promoted
32,088
(www.soccerage.com, 12/12/03)
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These figures show that despite supporting a team that was regularly losing Manchester city supporters continued to attend the teams matches and remained loyal. Several further studies into sport supporter attendance figures have also produced similar findings with regard to fan loyalty. Across the sporting world this trend can be seen time and time again where poorly performing teams are steadfastly and loyalty supported. Teams such as the Australian Football League’s Collingwood Magpies (Quick 2000) the Chicago Cubs (Bristow & Sebastian 2001) and the Boston Red Sox of the US baseball league (Quick 2000), the Utah Jazz and the Vancouver Grizzles of the NBA (Sebastian & Bristow 2001)) are but a few of the many clubs worldwide who are renowned for the loyalty of their support base through good times and bad.
While the research into the behavioural loyalty of fans is abundant less research has been devoted to delving into the area of sport supporter attitudes. However, the few studies encompassing attitudinal facets of loyalty have also found evidence of a heightened loyalty amongst sport supporters. One such study to make this finding was conducted by Sebastian and Bristow (2000) they discovered that consumers are disloyal to a variety of low quality or inferior consumer products yet will often remain both behaviourally and attitudinally brand loyal to poorly performing or inferior sports teams. In a study involving college students and their brand loyalty across six different product categories, the researchers found that for blue jeans, soft drinks, tennis shoes and delivery pizza’s, participants exhibited significantly less brand loyalty for inferior low quality products, however brand loyalty scores were not negatively impacted for professional sport teams exhibiting low quality performance.
Despite these findings to support the perceptions of undying loyalty amongst sport supporters there is also evidence to refute these claims. While several clubs have maintained attendance figures despite a losing team, as a general trend statistics have continually shown that teams with winning records attract greater spectator numbers than those with losing records (Madrigal 1995). Findings such as this are clear evidence that many sports followers act in the same way as consumers of other products and will brand switch in the quest of finding a more attractive or successful brand or team. On occasions sports fans are particularly fickle in their loyalty towards their club, take for example Napoli FC of the Italian Serie B. In the early 1990’s the club was regularly positioned towards the top of Serie A
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and home crowd numbers for the 92/93 season averaged a massive 58,599. Since relegation to Serie B in 1998 attendance figures have plummeted drastically and crowd numbers for the 2003/2004 season have averaged a mere 11,400.(www.european-football-statistics.co.uk) a drop of over 40,000 from a mere six seasons earlier. This example illustrates that behavioural loyalty amongst sports supporters groups is far from a formality.
The research aimed at segmenting the sports consumer market also supports the claim that not all sports supporters are intensely loyal. Work in this area has found that many attendants to a game have very little loyalty to the teams involved and attend games for a multitude of different reasons such as a love of the game (rather than just the team), or purely see the match as an entertainment option. (Tapp, 2003). Researchers have also found that many spectators associate themselves with successful teams as a means to boosting their own self-image, this phenomenon is commonly referred to in the research as BIRGing
THE “BIRGING” PHENOMENON When relating to others, individuals generally tend to surround themselves with others who are known to be successful. BIRGing (Basking in reflected glory) can be defined as the tendency of individuals to publicize their connections with successful others, when they have not contributed to the others success (Hirt et akl 1992 ) The BIRGing phenomenon can therefore be seen as an ego enhancement technique and helps to explain the multitude of supporters following traditionally successful clubs such as Manchester United in English Football and Baseballs New York Yankees. While this BIRGing group show all the traits of a loyal and committed sporting fan while their team is winning studies have shown that many of this group may Cut Off Reflected Failure (CORF) when their team struggles to maintain its winning record. These individuals may drift away from active support, or conversely direct their attention towards the seasons top team. A study by Kahle et al (1996) found that fans who attended matches purely for the purpose of being associated with winners are very likely to be brand switchers.
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While the BIRGing and CORFing groups make up a portion of sporting spectators, segmentation of sporting fans has found that while not all sport spectators are loyal there is a sizeable group of supporters who do display a high of level commitment and loyalty to their chosen club. (eg Tapp, 2003) This supporter segment is characterized by a high level of identification with the club and the team and is most commonly referred to in the literature as the “ fan” segment.
In order to understand why sporting fans continue to support unsuccessful teams and to display such strong levels of loyalty, it is perhaps best to define the “fan” term and to explore the characteristics and behaviours of this group.
THE SPORTS “FAN” DEFINED There is no universally agreeable definition for what constitutes a “fan” However several efforts have been made to describe and define the term, a review of these definitions are given below.
Fans or Spectators Establishing a distinction between mere “spectators” and “fans” is one of the key facets researchers have examined in defining the “fan” term. Jones (1997) suggests that spectators will observe a sport and then forget about it, while fans will have more intensity and will devote parts of every day to the team or the sport itself. Pooley (1978) suggests the need to differentiate between a fan and a spectator, claiming that the difference is a matter of degree of engrossment and passion. In perhaps the most definitive conceptualisations, Wann, Melnick, Russell and Page (2001) outline the differences between a fan and a spectator as well as the differences between highly and lowly identified fans. They define a sport fan as “individuals who are interested in and follow a sport, team, and/or athlete. Sport spectators are those individuals who actively witness a sporting event in person or through some form of media (radio, television, etc.)” (Wann et al., 2001). Zillman and Paulus (1993) characterized spectators as individuals who watch a game and then forget about the experience once it is over, whereas Sloan (1989) said a fan is one who watched a s an enthusiastic devotee.
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Definitions Spinrad (1981) defines a fan as “the person who thinks, talks about and is oriented towards sports even when [the fan] is not actually observing, or reading, or listening to an account of a specific sports event” (354). Fanship has also been defined as “an affiliation in which a great deal of emotional significance and value are derived from group membership” (Hirt, Zillman, Erickson & Kennedy, 1992: 725). Madrigal (1995) suggests that fans represent an association that provides the individual with a great deal of emotional and value significance. Lee and Zeiss (1980) describe the highly committed sport fan as one who shows “consistency, dedication and loyalty” with the commitment coming in three forms – cognitive, as the consumer builds up knowledge about the sport and team, attitudinal, as the consumer believes strongly in the team and the sport and behaviourally, showing his commitment through tangible acts such as ticket or merchandise purchasing Sutton et al (1997) studied what they called “vested Fans” who are deeply committed to the club. This commitment manifests itself in long term affiliation with one team/club, in significant time and money expenditure, and in loyalty despite results, that is, commitment persists even when clubs are not performing well.
There are many terms used to describe the sport fan ( fanatic, passionate partisan, highly committed fan , vested fan , die hard fan and varying definitions supplied, this sampling of conceptualisations shows the range of definitions as well as the similarities and overlap. Those researchers who do differentiate between spectator and fan agree that the difference is in the degree of devotion to the team or player. Those who do not differentiate between these terms tend to refer to the fan in highly devoted terms.
Footnote (for the remainder of this manuscript we will use the terms “fan” in referring to an involved and identified supporter of a team, while spectator will be used to refer to any individual viewing a sporting contest)
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FAN CHARACTERISTICS Research has identified a number of characteristics, behaviours and attitudes that are common to the sports fan, the most significant of these are discussed below.
Male Dominated domain Historically, sport fandom has been a male dominated domain, with many investigations finding that men are more likely to be highly involved sport fans than women (Wann et al 2001) However while this may be the case, recent investigations would indicate that while male fans still far outnumber female fans, the number of women sporting fans is on the increase. This trend has been observed in major American sporting leagues such as the NFL and NHL were females make up 45% of spectators (Wann et al 2001) while in England statisticians have found evidence of an increase in female fan numbers to Premier League football games (www.le.ac.uk/footballresearch/fansurveys.html)
Emotion The fans involvement and identification with the team can often reach levels where the individuals mood and emotions are influenced by team results. Eisler (1997) presented a picture of the sports fan whose emotional balance hangs on his team’s performance, with losses being devastating and causing real emotional pain. Several further authors have also identified the emotional influence sport viewing can have on fans. Sloan (1979) conducted a study that illustrated that watching sporting events does effect spectator emotions, in terms of more positive emotions (happy, satisfied, pleased) when their team won and negative emotions (angry, frustrated, discouraged, upset) when their team lost.
I ntolerance Research has found that fans are particularly intolerant to other supporters who are not as committed to the cause as they are (Fiske 1989, 1992) Marsh et al (1978) found fans disdain “parttime” supporters who do not display fanatical commitment and focus. Redden and Steiner (??)
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make the point that, for some fans, ordinary supporters are intruders. Rather than promote the brand, club or campaign the fanatic acts to drive away these ordinary supporters. King (1997) described the lads - English soccer fans who resent new spectators to the sport, namely wealthy family groups who lack long term commitment. English football writer Hornby (1992) also complained about these new soccer consumers whom he characterised as “suburban middle-class kids and their mums and dads” They are now supporting his club Arsenal but he wonders whether they will turn up if his club is losing.
Supportive Social Contexts The sports literature reports that contextual facilitation is quite common amongst sport fanatics, manifesting in how they choose their friends, in the media they consume and in the things they collect. Wann and Branncombe (1993) found that fans that identified highly with their team were more likely to have other friends who supported their team. Smith et al(1981) found that highly committed sports fans were likely to have friends similarly interested in the sport. Taylor (1991) discovered that intolerant fans surround themselves with people, opinions and experiences they can tolerate. They can tolerate them because they reinforce or at least do not challenge their perspective.
Memorabilia Another common finding with regard to fans is their tendency to collect various team and match related memorabilia. Fiske (1992) describes this phenomenon and terms it “capital collecting” and suggests it facilitates their fanatical context. Capital can include just about anything that can be collected that represents the team or the sport, for example books, records, clothes and posters. Other examples may include, articles, video of old performances, newspaper clippings and match programs. Bromberger et al (1993) commented on the “emblems” fans collect as homage to their team, “Some of them do not go anywhere without a club emblem (scarf, pen, program medallion) they conserve the precious relics of their attendance (match programs) and witnesses to the presence next to their idols (autographs, photos)
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Physical Arousal and Violence Corbin (1973) found that sport causes the spectator to experience significant arousal and an increase in heart rate. This arousal can also take the form of familiar fan behaviour, such as cheering, waving and yelling and also through songs, chants, drums flares and banners (Bromberger et al 1993) Sloan (1979) has shown that being in a crowd, such as for a sporting contest can cause violent arousal. He found that watching violent sporting contests such as football also produced aggression and hostility in the spectator. While violence at sporting contests is relatively rare it does almost exclusively seem to originate from committed fan groups as opposed to less involved spectator group. “Hooliganism” is the term given to groups who engage in aggressive and rough behaviour. Much of the behaviour we commonly describe as hooliganism is ritualistic and non-violent (Marsh et al 1978) This involves : verbally abusing rival fans, threatening them with attack , and general horseplay aimed at ”having a laugh” A common perception is that sport related violence and hooliganism are solely a football (soccer) problem. In reviewing the literature on sport crowd related violence the majority of reported violent fan behaviour does indeed revolve around football. The following are some examples of recent football related violence
After a 2002 world cup loss to Japan Russian football fans rioted in Moscow, the riots resulted in 2 deaths, while a further 50 people were injured. (www.news.bbc.co.uk 26/3/04) Between 1999 and 2002 there were 3 football related murders in England, 5 in Italy and 39 in Argentina.
Serious crowd incidents have also been reported across Oceania, Africa, Asia as well as many other areas. (www.soccerage.com 23/3/2004)
However there are also instances where other sports have been tainted by aggressive crowd behaviour
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Fan violence gained a lot of attention in the USA in September 2002 when two fans jumped out of the stands at Comiskey and attacked Kansas City Royals first base coach Tom Gamboa. According to Associated Press reports, William Ligue Jr. told police he went after Gamboa because he was upset the White Sox were losing. (www.thepost.ohiou.edu/ archives 03.02.04)
Despite these examples there is evidence to suggest that hooliganism and crowd violence are on the wane, at least this appears to be the case in England the so called “home” of the hooligan According to English football supporters, club officials and policeman the problems are not as severe as in previous times (www.furd.org/onlineresources.html). A 2001 premier league survey found that only 7% of supporters felt hooliganism was on the rise, however at a small number of clubs this number was much higher. At Manchester City this number was 32% in 2001. (www.le.ac.uk/footballresearch/fansurveys.html)
Racism The use of sporting clubs as a means to the promotion of racist views is also an ugly element that has at times plagued various professional clubs. While this problem is one which seemed to have all but disappeared after being a major concern up to the 90’s, incidents in recent years have suggested it is far from extinct. Sport fan racism has primarily been a problem across Europe, where in the main black but also Asian players have been subjected to racist taunts or other racist behaviour. ( ref times 1st march). Countries much further a field have also been effected, in Australian football several of the countries largest clubs have strong ties to ethnic groups and this has brought about a series of racially based flair ups (www.philcleary.com.au/soccer_racism_knights) American sport has also been blighted by the problem, black athletes make up a large proportion of professional athletes in the US, yet they ply their trades to majority white spectator audiences and several of their high profile ranks have been subjected to racial discrimination. Take the US open tennis 2002 tournament where the US crowd supported French player Amelia Mauresmo over Black American Serena Williams. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/open/2002-09-08stars_x.htm a choice that many saw as a form of racism.
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SPORTS FANS – IRRATIONAL ? The tendency of fans to remain both behaviourally and attitudinally loyal to poorly performing or low quality teams has led several authors to question the rationality of the sporting fan. The strong links between satisfaction and loyalty found in general consumer settings, appear to be less evident amongst sporting supporters, at least within the “fan” segment of a teams support base
.Vivek Rao (2003) discusses this phenomenon amongst sporting fans “Essentially professional sports clubs supply one major product , that being the game, fans meanwhile demand this game , and they pay for it by showing up to games or watching on television. The odd thing here is that while in relation to a consumer product a consumers demand would drop if the product was inferior, this often is not the case with professional sports teams. Sporting fans will often continue to purchase tickets despite a teams poor performance or losing record (more losses than wins)” “While we demand quality in everything we buy in our daily lives, we tend to subvert these high standards when it comes to following sports” Commenting on the peculiarity of sport fan loyalty in his internet column Thomas P Straw (2001) states – “This is the great conundrum of professional sports, normal rules of business, and normal standards of common sense and rational judgement are thrown entirely out of the equation. Frankly it is amazing that pro sports fans shrug off their many frustrations with a curt “well its just a business after all” Yes it is a business! Exactly right. Why don’t fans, and not just the players and owners, treat it that way. Bluntly put, if we consumed washing machines or houses or cars or electronics or anything in the manner we consume sports, we would be a nation of vagabonds at the mercy of despots” Quick (2000) suggests that loyalty, in the sporting sense, has become a divided concept - the rational customer is the one who wishes to be entertained, whereas the irrational customer is the hard-core fan.
MOTIVES FOR ATTENDANCE In efforts aimed at understanding the behaviour of sporting consumer researchers have
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looked at a host of factors that may motivate the sporting fan. One of the factors that has been suggested as a key draw card for sporting consumers is the nature of the sporting contest itself, The unpredictability of the sporting contest and the possibility that your team (no matter how badly their recent form has been) could triumph may be a motivating factor in bringing back the fan week after week and year after year. “Unlike more predictable forms of leisure behaviour, sporting events represent a finite experience in which outcomes are unknown prior to the commencement of competition. As such, sporting events represent a hedonic experience in which the event itself elicits a sense of drama and attendant outcomes yield cognitions about the performance as well as affective reactions” (Madrigal ,1995) Previous research by authors such as Kerstetter & Kovich, 1997; Koppett, 1981 also suggests that the unique nature of sporting events is the primary appeal for many fans. Beyond this basic attraction to the sporting contest there is a growing body of research that has examined the reasons people watch and follow sports (Kahle, Kambara, & Rose, 1996; Kolbe & James, 2000; Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). Much of the work has focused on identifying the reasons (motives) thought to influence an individual's general interest in sports and developing instruments to measure the motives of sport fans. Wann (1995), Kahle, Kambara, and Rose (1996), Milne and McDonald (1999) and Trail and James (2001) developed scales to measure the underlying motivations of sports fans. Wann (1995) developed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) based on the existing conceptual literature within sport sociology (Sloan, 1989; Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989; Zillmann & Paulus, 1993). Milne and McDonald developed an instrument to measure spectator and participant motives based on the work of Sloan (1989) and Maslow (1943), and Kahle et al. proposed a scale based on Kelman's (1958) functional theory of attitudinal influence. Compared to previous instruments, the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) has been shown to accurately and reliably measure the motives of sport consumers (Trail & James, 2001). The MSSC was developed from a review of the sport sociology literature (Sloan, 1989; Zillmann et al., 1989; Zillmann & Paulus, 1993) and from an evaluation of the scales proposed by Wann (1995), Milne and McDonald (1999), and Kahle et al. (1996). The MSSC provides an assessment of nine motives: achievement, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, drama/ eustress, escape, family, physical attractiveness of participants, the quality of the physical skill of the participants, and social interaction.
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While the work with regard to fan motives has unearthed a number of variables which contribute to fans attendance at matches, an exploration of fan motivations does not conclusively provide answers as to the reasoning behind the irrational loyalty of the sporting fan.
In an effort to expand on the work with regard to spectator motivations and to gain a better grasp of the drivers influencing the loyalty of the sporting fan, Marketing company brand Keys has conducted some break-through research .
BRAND KEYS – LOYALTY DRIVERS The Brand Keys company has attempted to divulge the key drivers that influence loyalty across sporting clubs. Brand Keys has adapted the psychological questions and computer algorithms that they use to determine the drivers of consumer loyalty to develop a loyalty index for the sports industry. Their sports loyalty index, which examines all teams competing in the US’s four major professional sporting leagues (NBA, NHL, MLB; NFL) has identified four drivers of fan loyalty – Pure Entertainment Value, Authenticity, Fan bonding and the Team or the leagues history and traditions.
1. Pure Entertainment Value This most significant factor of the four, PEV is inextricably linked with team success and as such is more likely to be an influence in the creation of short term loyalty or fair-weather supporters, rather than committed long term fans. However this variable is also influenced by factors not directly related to success such as the teams style of play or the quality of pre game/half time entertainment.
2.Authenticity The authenticity index looks at the fans perception of the game as real and meaningful with outcomes a true result of team effort. In essence the authenticity factor looks at whether a team plays with pride regardless of their win/loss record, an issue sports fans frequently cite as holding the utmost importance.
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3.Fan Bonding The Fan bonding driver looks at the personal attachment between fans and a team or a teams players. The driver also examines the degree to which fans feel their efforts impact on the team. Are the teams wins our wins? In line with the fan bonding concept, Zhang, Pease, Hui & Michauds (1995) research argued that “making spectators feel that they had contributed to the teams success was as important as winning”
4.History and Traditions This component looks at the teams previous record of achievement and the richness of the clubs culture. (Pasikoff, 2000)
The drivers proposed by Brand- keys differentiate fan loyalty across US professional sporting clubs. While these drivers are not specifically related to the “fan” group, and rather relate to the general sporting fan population, they undoubtedly provide some insight into the variables influencing the behaviour and loyalty of the committed fan. The first driver proposed by Brand Keys “pure entertainment value” is directly linked to team results and success, thus has little relevance in explaining the behaviour of the irrational fan. However, beyond the Pure entertainment Value driver, the remaining drivers are not directly linked to team success and thus provide some direction as to the factors outside team performance which generate loyalty.
SPORTING CLUBS – LOYALTY PROGRAMS Despite the lack of a complete understanding of the motives and drivers that generate loyalty amongst sporting consumers, sporting clubs have used a number of methods aimed at improving the loyalty of their support base. While Sports Clubs are not as far along the loyalty learning curve as some sectors, such as Airlines with their Frequent Flyer Point’s or Supermarkets and Petrol companies and their loyalty
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programmes, there has been significant progress in this area –particularly amongst US professional clubs. Major clubs in the US and Britain now run loyalty programs with the use of club-cards which are swiped upon entrance to the stadium and upon every club related purchase. (Picarille 2003)
Customer Relationship Marketing In order to better target their clubs fans, several professional clubs have turned to Customer Relationship Marketing as a means to solidifying their relationships with fans. Major Professional Sporting Clubs in the US were the first, in the sporting sector, to implement CRM as a tool to maintaining and increasing fan numbers and loyalty. Teams such as the Arizona Diamond Backs , the Carlolina Hurricanes, the Phoenix suns and the San Diego Padres all have CRM programs up and running, some of which have been in operation for close to 10 years. The San Diego Padres of US Major League Baseball were among the first professional teams to implement a CRM program and was the first to start a fan-loyalty rewards program. Through its rewards programs, which gives fans a card to swipe at stadium kiosks, fans earn discounts on future tickets, food, beverages, and items from the team store. In return the Padres get detailed demographic information about fans , and the ability to track spending habits at the game. (Picarille 2003)
The information gathered in databases such as the Padres gives clubs invaluable information with regard to their fan makeup and how best to target their customers. For example the information gathered in the Padres database uncovered that a large proportion of their fan base resided just over the border in Mexico, information that their fan program manager Brook Govan claims only came to light after they began using a CRM program (Picarille 2003) This information has lead to the club targeting Hispanic fans on both sides of the border with radio and television campaigns. In 2000 Atique Shah was hired by the NBA (National Basketball Association) to create a CRM architecture for the league as a whole to build deeper longer lasting relationships with its fan base. While many NBA clubs were initially sceptical as to the benefits of CRM, 18 of the 29 teams have now signed on. The New York Knicks are one of the teams which have taken CRM on board and this has greatly improved the way in which they communicate with their fans. Knicks management now have information as detailed as which players fans like and which types of offers they are
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interested in. This has lead to the Knicks being able to tailor mail messages and promotions to specific fans. (Rasmusson, 2002) Edward Soliman, director of marketing for the Knicks states ”When you contact your customers you have to be able to cater to their needs. An advantage of using a CRM solution is that you are able to cater to customers needs and not target them with offers they have zero interest in”(Rasmusson 2002) Several other US sporting clubs operate fan databases and have fan loyalty reward based systems as part of their CRM program. Clubs using CRM also offer a host of other services including – reselling of tickets to other fans, priority allocation for ticketing, free giveaways, and personalised messages such as birthday wishes to season ticket holders.(Picarille 2003) Major football Clubs in England have also implemented CRM programs, several Premiership clubs, such as Chelsea, now run card based loyalty schemes.(Wray 2000). Clubs running these types of programs have, in the main, had success with them. Predominantly, the programs have proved successful in further strengthening the already close bonds with loyal fans. Several clubs have reported increased attendance amongst their committed fan segment after introducing a CRM program (Rasmusson 2002) While programs making use of CRM can prove very effective in solidifying a sporting clubs relationships with its support base, the major drawback of such systems is the financial outlay required for installation and maintenance. Advanced CRM systems often require a great deal of customization and a team of IT people to maintain (Picarille 2003), thus placing them out of the range of many smaller clubs.
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CASE STUDY AGF CLUB AGF are Århus’s only club team in Danish footballs highest Echelon - the Super League. The club was particularly successful in the 50’s and 60’s winning the Danish Championship 4 times and the Danish cup 5 times in this period. Despite having won the Danish Cup a further 4 times since the 60’s the club has only achieved 1 further championship in this period, in 1986. In the last 5 seasons (99/00 through to 03/04) the club has finished as follows 8th, 10th, 8th, 10th and 10th in the 12 team league. (www.agf_fanklub.dk) Despite crowd numbers averaging 5000-6000 in recent seasons the club has a solid base of fans, the core of which is formed by the AGF Supporters Club.
Supporters Club As of August 2003 the Supporters club counted 2083 in number. The vast majority of this group attend all home games and congregate together in a regular position inside the stadium Sector C1 to C3). A large majority of this group wear replica AGF shirts or scarves to games making the group easily identifiable. The supporters Club also arranges trips to follow the team to away games and numbers attending these trips range from 100 or so for trips to the smaller clubs up to 600-800 for matches with the big Copenhagen clubs – Brondby and FCK. The supporters club is independently run, however close links are kept with AGF management, and AGF management and players are often in attendance at Supporter Club meetings. (Information obtained in an interview with AGF representative)
Ultra White Pride The white supremacist group UWP also have an unofficial link to the AGF club. Formed in 1994 this group currently numbers close to 40 members and describe themselves as a hooligan group. The UWP’s locate themselves in a position close to the supporters group inside the stadium and are also often present on trips to away games. On the home-site for UWP the club chairmen claims that the club is for “ people who love AGF more than anything” and “are ready to fight for AGF if there is need for it”
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Occasionally this group has been involved in violent confrontations with other supporters, in 2002 12 fans were arrested after a confrontation between AGF and Brondby supporters (UWP website), many of the arrested were UWP members. The group have also been involved in several other skirmishes, however these have all occurred outside of Aarhus Stadium making it difficult for the AGF club to combat the problem. (http://www.geocities.com/agfuwp/)
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HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT FAN LOYALTY GENERATION & MAINTENANCE The research into the motives of the sporting consumers and the work of Brand Keys has uncovered a host of potential factors that draw consumers to sporting contests. However, work in this area has in the main failed to link an individuals motives for attendance with their level of loyalty to the team. While research has revealed a host of consumer motives for attendance there is minimal knowledge as to the specific motives that drive and generate the often extreme loyalty and unusual behaviour of the irrational fan as opposed to the more rational spectator.
In order to further the understanding of the factors that generate the loyalty of the sporting fan this study has used Oliver’s (1999) framework, examining the generation of consumer loyalty, as a basis point
Oliver’s framework was proposed as a means to investigating loyalty generation and towards answering, amongst others, the following questions (1) can the consumer elect to be socially integrated in a “village” that envelops and directs the consumers choices in a satisfying way? and (2) can the consumer effect a self identity that corresponds only to the selected brand and its community, in a manner of religious sects adopting a unique lifestyle?. The questions posed above would appear to be particularly appropriate for an investigation of the behaviour and generation of loyalty amongst sporting fan. While knowledge as to the motives of the sporting fan is quite considerable, the knowledge as to the factors that generate fan loyalty is somewhat minimal.
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OLIVERS FRAMEWORK According to Oliver loyalty can be generated and maintained on the basis of four loyalty strategies as displayed in the grid below
FIG 2
Four Loyalty Strategies
Community Support
Low
High
Low
Product Superiority
Village Envelopment
High
Determined Self isolation Immersed Self identity
Individual Fortitude
The vertical dimension in this framework reflects the degree of individual fortitude, or the degree to which the consumer fights off competitive overtures on the basis of his /her allegiance to the brand and not on the basis of market generated information. The horizontal component illustrates low and high phases of community and social support, here the community provides the impetus to remain loyal because either it is enticing in a passive sense or it proactively promotes loyalty.
The framework suggested by Oliver offers four possible explanations as to the generation of consumer loyalty. Applying this framework to an investigation of sporting fans, the left sided quadrant of the grid encompassing Product Superiority and Determined Self-isolation can be discounted for a number of reasons. Firstly the Left side of the quadrant represents the Low Community/Social Support of the grid, a situation which strongly contradicts with the high levels of social interaction inherent in the consumption of sporting events. While these quadrants may provide some insight into loyalty generation amongst non-attending fans ( eg Arm Chair Fans) they are irrelevant for an investigation of loyalty generation amongst fans who regularly attend matches.
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The right sided sector of the framework houses the sectors termed “village envelopment” and “immersed self identity”. Both of these quadrants offer possible explanations for the formation of loyalty and behaviour of committed fans.
VILLAGE ENVELOPMENT If we at first take the top right quadrant of Oliver’s we encounter a situation encompassing high community support and low individual fortitude, a segment which has been dubbed the “social village” .In its pure form the Village is a social alliance in which the primary motivation to become loyal on the part of each consumer is to be one with the group, and the primary motivation of the group overseers is to please their constituency. In this situation, the consumer becomes a willing participant because of the attention provided by its members. In the limiting case, the product/service is not the consumable. Rather it is the camaraderie provided by the social organisation. This concept goes by many names in the literature but is perhaps best exemplified as a consumption community (Friedman, Vanden Abeele, and De Vos 1993) based on Borsteins (1973) notion that individuals feel a sense of community when they share the same consumption values and behaviours. Implicit in the concept of the consumption community is that it encompasses both a sense of belonging and what Goodwin (1997) refers to as communality. Relating this quadrant to the sporting arena, the often irrational behaviour of sporting fans becomes a great deal more reasonable if the motives for attendance are connected to a desire for social contact. In this situation the core product supplied by the sporting club – the team – is not the key focus for the consumer, rather the focus is the unity and camaraderie felt by engaging in support related activities with other like minded individuals. Indeed it is not at all unreasonable to assume that for some individuals a quest for social contact and sense of allegiance may drive their attendance and loyalty to a sporting club/brand. In the sporting setting several authors have found evidence of a “social village” type community amongst sporting fans. Wann & Branscombe, (1990) found that many fans may follow the team because of the sense of identity felt by associating themselves with a particular group
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Melnick (1989) and Stotlar(1995) found that many spectators seek social interaction and enjoyment via their sporting experience. Zillmann suggests that sports fanship can unite individuals and provide them with feelings of belongingness and solidarity. Blumer, (1969) also suggests that individuals could become fans as a way to achieve group membership or be a part of a collective unit and that a primary benefit of collective behaviour is the sense of belonging that arises with group identification. Collective identities are known for their ability to give individuals a sense of belonging to a group. One dominant purpose of collective identities is to define borders by differentiating between “us” and “them,” thereby creating both opponents and solidarities (Snow & Oliver, 1995). This differentiation is quite clearly played out amongst sporting crowds where fans supporting the same team will congregate together as a means to providing a sense of unity.
Fans as a Collective Unit – Fan Interaction A Sports crowd is unique in that the group already possesses commonalities (allegiances and loyalties to the team) even before becoming a collective unit. When the game begins, the crowd becomes a collective unit (Allison, 1979) and this “unit” will often partake in a whole range of activities such as singing, clapping, chanting and even dancing activities used as a means to encourage their team. Theodore Dalrymple (1999) describes the attraction of the crowd felt by many spectators .. “ The fan absolves himself of the crime of being prosperous by immersing himself in a huge crowd of others and behaving exactly like them. He makes the same obscene and quasi-fascistic gestures as everyone else, he raises his voice with 10,000 others and makes no objection to whatever is being shouted. His goal is to dissolve his own personality in the collective personality of the crowd.” Research suggests fans may become loyal to a particular team because of the enjoyment associated with spectating (Zillman, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989) and the interaction amongst fans is undoubtedly a source of entertainment and enjoyment for some fans. A Study by Sutton et al (1997) gives substance to this line of thinking. Sutton et al suggested that as the level of fan interaction and involvement increases , the less likely a fans behaviour will impacted on by team performance.
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Violence / Racism and the “Social Village” Not only can sporting events act as an attraction for individuals seeking mere social interaction and companionship, they can also attract individuals or groups with more sinister intentions. The intense emotional excitement involved with sporting events, the compact positioning of supporters and the idea of an enemy and a defence of territory mean that sporting events are in many ways an ideal setting for negative behaviours such as racism and violence. (www.footballculture.net) For some individuals the prospect of a confrontation or fight may act as a key motive in their reasoning for attendance. Due to the environment being conducive to violence it is not at all uncommon for violent or racist groups to become associated with sporting clubs Often an allegiance to a violent or hooligan group will become intertwined with allegiance to a sporting club, thus loyalty to one organisation becomes loyalty to another. The Sir Norman Chester Centre for football research made the following findings regarding fan motives for Hooliganism in England While most fan behaviour is non-violent Core Hooligans however, do seem more interested in fighting or ”running” rival groups who are, in their eyes, like themselves and who are also looking for trouble. Among the reasons they do this is because the prospect of a fight is something which is, for them, exciting and enjoyable.. (Dunning et al 1988) Fighting at football is largely about young working class males testing out their own reputation for manliness against those of other young men from similar communities. Furthermore, in the social circles in which they move the ability to fight, group solidarity and loyalty, plus the aggressive defence of culturally defined areas, are all elements of a satisfying masculine identity (Dunning et al 1988) Hooligan groups can therefore be viewed as a further form of social village that connects themselves to various sporting club. One of the most prominent groups attaching themselves to a sporting team are the so-called “Ultra’s” following football club SS Lazio of Italy. Historically, Lazio have had ties with the National Alliance, the former fascist party and the club have continually been plagued with problems due to “ultra’s” far right views. (www.spiked-online.com 26/3/2003) Further Football Clubs such as Millwall and Chelsea in England have a long tradition of violence and racism amongst their supporter groups. Well publicised incidents involving violence and
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racism have also been reported at football contests in Spain, the Netherlands and in Slovakia of late. (The Times 1st March 2004) Many of the clubs across Europe have well organised Hooligan groups and confrontations between rival teams supporters have on some instances been planned before or after matches. Even in the relative tranquillity of Denmark a number of Super League clubs have small organised groups of hooligans for whom the prospect of violence or racism and loyalty to their chosen group would appear to be the key motive for their association and attendance at a clubs matches. (http://www.geocities.com/agfuwp/)
FIG 3
Conceptualising loyalty formation based on the Village Envelopment theory
Need for Acceptance
Attachment to the clubs environment
Repeat Attendance
LOYALTY
Core Product The Team
The diagram above displays sporting fan loyalty generation according to Village envelopment theory. In this situation the Individual is stimulated to attend a clubs matches by the prospect of social interaction, thus it is an attraction to the clubs environment as opposed to the core product that motivates initial contact. An attachment to this environment and the sense of belonging this entails further stimulates repeat purchasing and brand loyalty.
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IMMERSED SELF IDENTITY The bottom right quadrant of the grid consists of high individual fortitude and high community support. This situation is distinct from that of the “village” because in this case the cultural/social environment may assume a stationary or passive, though enticing role. This is a particularly healthy situation for the firm because the product service is embedded inextricably within some portion of the consumers psyche, as well as his or her lifestyle. The consumable is part and parcel of the consumers self identity and his or her social identity, that is the person cannot conceive of him or herself as a whole without it. Oliver (1999) suggests that this quadrant represents the highest state of loyalty and that in this stage the consumer has reached a level of action loyalty. In this action loyalty phase the consumer is assumed to be in a state where they are committed to the action of repurchasing a brand or product and are prepared to overcome various obstacles that may prevent this act. The situation described above would appear to mirror the relationship of many sporting fans to their favoured team. Sports fans are renowned for their high levels of attachment and involvement to sporting teams often devoting large portions of their time and money to following a clubs fortunes. Committed fans also show a willingness to overcome obstacles to their support, such as travelling significant distances to support their team or enduring the results of a particularly poorly performing team ((deteriorating brand performance) more evidence. The discussion of the “Immersed self identity” quadrant suggests that in this instance the consumable is part and parcel of the consumers self identity and his or her social identity. In the sporting arena researchers have regularly drawn attention to the identification of the sporting fan. Many authors conducting research in the area of sport fan behaviour have studied the degree of identification sports fans have with their team (fisher & Wakefield, 1998, Wann & Branscombe). Several authors have used the term Involvement to describe sport fans. This construct is described by Shank and Beasley (1998) as the perceived interest in and personal importance of sports to an individual., while it is defined by Bahk (2000) as the significance of sport spectating for the fan in everyday life.(ref1)”
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Roese and Manieri describe (1997) the strength of fan attitudes and how for many people sport spectating represents “one of the most passionate and intense of human endeavours, utterly dominating affect and cognition for short periods of time” Guttman (1986) describes some sport fans as “emotionally committed consumers of sporting events” Reeden et al (2000) describe the fanatical stance that some sport supporters take towards their chosen team.
This tendency for some supporters to become highly identified has led to sport related researchers exploring the work relating to social identity theory as a means to explaining fan loyalty. Research has found that individuals who are emotionally involved devotees to a team or club are far more likely to repurchase that teams match tickets and to evaluate that product or experience more positively. This high level of involvement with a sporting club is often linked to high levels of identity salience. Salient identities are those that are an important part of who we are and ones we display routinely. A study by Arnett (2000) found that a sporting fans level of identity salience was the best predictor in relation to a fans decision to purchase a chosen teams match tickets. Arnett found that while other factors such as satisfaction with the product/service were important in fan ticket purchase behaviour, identity salience was a much greater influence in this area. With specific reference to sporting fans the level of identity salience an individual possesses with regard to their favourite club has been termed the degree to which they hold a ”fan identity”.
Formation of Fan Identities While the work conducted by Oliver and the “immersed self-identity” quadrant described above appears to closely depict the relationship fans have with their sporting teams, it does however fail to explain how and why consumers develop identities linked to consumer brands or sporting teams. In attempting to explain why fans form such deep ceded bonds with sporting clubs Arnett suggests that the act of being a "fan" can be a personalized role, a part of the self, and, therefore, a vehicle by which people can maintain their self-concept. Fans that form an identity related to a club may experience strong feelings associated with "their" club and may feel a sense of attachment to the club, which, in turn, tends to increase the salience of their "fan identity." It is
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posited that high levels of attachment enhance identity salience. Thus, the more attachment a person feels to a club, the more important that identity becomes to their sense of self.
Research into the formation of sports related “fan identities” is in its infancy, the key forces that influence sporting fan identities are in the main as yet to be explored. However assessment of the research related to the formation of salient identities, and loyalty formation in general consumer settings provides a number of potential factors which may influence the creation of “fan identities”, According to authors researching identity salience, socialisation is a key factor in influence in this process Identity salience is likely to influenced by social ties and the use of identity related products. There is a great deal of evidence supporting the relationship between social connections and identity salience . (Arnett 2000)
Socialization It is not at all unreasonable to assume that individuals become fans through socialization, primarily by friends and family. This socialisation into sport fanship would appear to occur on two distinct levels – socialisation into sport in general, and socialisation into team/brand loyalty. Sport Socialisation It is possible that fanship can be traced back to childhood sports socialization. While it once would have been fair to say that sport fans were predominantly male, it is not necessarily true today. However, boys especially are traditionally socialized into sports at a young age (Chorbajian, 1978; Smith, 1979). Boys are introduced to athletics at early ages, through both parental influences and marketing means, such as bedding and clothing, which are likely to have athletic themes or emblems on them (Chorbajian, 1978). Other socialization agents which make a strong contribution to sport socialization include the community, toys, peers and role models (Giuliano, Popp & Knight 2000).
Team Socialisation Individuals are socialised into fanship of particular teams by a number of sources, however it is likely that the most influential group in this area is the immediate family.
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The intergenerational family influence of parents or relatives has been suggested as an influential component in building brand loyalty in general consumer settings (Sheth et al 1999 ) For example a consumer who, as a child, saw his/her parents consistently purchase Kenmore appliances, might be expected to accept his/her parents history with that brand as evidence of the superiority, dependability or value of the Kenmore brand and thus those children as adults are more likely to be loyal to the Kenmore brand. (Sebastian & Bristow2001)). This form of socialization is one which is likely to be particularly relevant with regard to the development of sport fan loyalty. A child’s witnessing of a parent or relatives devotion to a chosen team is likely to have a significant impact on their attitudes towards that team, particularly if the adult figure is a dedicated fan. Much as in the example used above a child consistently viewing their parents allegiance to Liverpool FC, may take this as evidence of the clubs superiority and strength and thus would be more likely to be brand loyal to the club in their adulthood. The parent or relative may further their influence by attempting to push their team of choice on the child. This can be achieved by escorting the child to a teams matches or by purchasing the child any number of team related items. A common method currently used by adults to socialise their children into fanship, and indeed display their own loyalty to a team, is to deck their children out in the replica kits of their chosen club, manufacturers have made this a possibility by producing garments small enough to fit children as young as two years of age. The work of Sheth also provides some impetus into the formation of fan identities. Sheths loyalty model depicted three fundamental concepts that contribute to a consumers brand loyalty. Perceived brand performance fit Social and Emotional identification with the brand Habit and long history with the brand
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FIG 4
Perceived brand Performance Fit
Social /emotional Identification with the brand
Attitude/ toward, Likeability of the brand
Repeat Purchase of the brand
Customer brand Loyalty
Habit/ history with the brand
Sheth suggests social and emotional identification with the brand as a key component in brand loyalty, in much the same way Oliver asserts this is the case with relation to the Immersed Self identity quadrant. Perhaps more significant however is the final construct proposed by Sheth, that of habit and long history with the brand, a construct likely to be a driver in this identification.
Habit and History Habit and History with a sporting club is also likely to be a major contributor in the creation of the die hard sporting fan. Because sporting clubs are in the main located in a fixed position (except in the case of stadium relocation) they have a relatively stable base of consumers and thus the ability to build long lasting and meaningful relationships with the sporting supporters in their geographical region.. It is natural that consumers interested in a particular sport become attached to the first and most accessible team they encounter, a process that most usually occurs during an individuals childhood. The media bias towards local clubs and the proximity to the local clubs stadiums will often mean that an individuals “hometown” or local team is the club with which the individual makes these first attachments and thus the club which they build an allegiance to. It is also likely that the longer an individual lives in close proximity to a chosen club and is an active supporter of
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this club the stronger the ties will become with this club, and the less likely the individual will be to change allegiance to a rival team. A 2001 premier league survey provides some evidence to the role of habit and history in fan creation. This study found that of season ticket holders, across all clubs, around 90% of fans had supported their club in excess of five years, with many having supported for a much longer time period.
FIG 5
Conceptualizing loyalty formation as based on the Self Identity Theory
Socialisation
Fit with clubs environment
Identification with the club
Habit
Repeat attendance
Loyalty
History
In the situation depicted above the consumer builds a strong relationship and identification to the club based on socialisation, habit and history. The core product provides the impetus for the consumers identification, however the clubs environment may also further attract the consumer to the club, and further heighten identification levels. This connection between the consumer and
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both the clubs core product and club environment stimulates continued repeat purchasing and further loyalty.
SATISFACTION AND THE SPORTS FAN An inquiry into the relevant literature shows that the satisfaction- loyalty relation is not well specified. While initial research in this area suggested a direct link between satisfaction and loyalty (fig 1), latterly researchers have proposed a host of possible associations between the two variables the some of which are displayed below.
Depictions of the satisfaction loyalty relationship
FIG 6
Fig 6.1
Fig 6.2
SATISFACTION
Satisfaction and Loyalty as One
LOYALTY
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Fig 6.3
Fig 6.4
LOYALTY Sat
Loy
SAT
Fig 6.1 – Satisfaction and loyalty as one and the same Fig 6.2 – Satisfaction as a vital component in loyalty, yet insufficient in itself to produce loyalty Fig 6.3 – Loyalty and satisfaction as separate entities Fig 6.4 – Satisfaction transferred into loyalty, much like a caterpillar becomes a butterfly
In the sporting sense the satisfaction –loyalty relationship would appear to be particularly complex. While successful teams attend to attract greater numbers of - one would assume satisfied - supporters, this relationship does not always hold. The repeat attendance and loyalty of the highly committed fan, regardless of team results brings to light a number of issues with regard to the satisfaction / loyalty relationship amongst this group. The first issue to consider here is whether or not sporting fans, in particular fans of unsuccessful teams, are satisfied at all? It would seem logical that an individual steadfastly supporting a team losing week after week would at least to some degree feel dissatisfied with this situation, thus prompting a scenario where it would appear the fans loyalty is unconnected to their satisfaction level. (6.3)
However, taking this view is somewhat short-sighted and ignores that fact that consumers attend sporting events for a host of reasons beyond a teams win/loss record.
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As has been discussed there are a host of variables that motivate sporting consumers to attend sporting events and a teams results are only one of many factors that attracts consumers. It is of course conceivable that fans may be satisfied by a whole host of factors distinct from events on the pitch. If we are to assume sporting fans loyalty according to Olivers “village” theory, the social interaction and solidarity provided by being part of a close knit group may be a possible factor creating satisfaction unrelated to team success, similarly a range of factors outside a team success may provide fans a satisfying experience.
Another scenario which may hold some relevance for the sporting fan relates to fig 7.4. In this instance satisfaction transforms into loyalty much like a caterpillar . After this metamorphosis, the two creatures are not the same and share virtually no common characteristics except for their biological origins. This is somewhat of an extreme position , for it suggests that loyalty can never return to mere satisfaction. The high identification levels and loyalty of sporting fans would tend to suggest a scenario such as that described above, where satisfaction or more pointedly dissatisfaction is unable to break the individuals bond with his/her team. While sporting fans appear to reach this end –state of a break between satisfaction and loyalty, a key component of scenario four is that satisfaction must initially be present to start the process. Sports fans would appear to attest to the fact that in the long term loyalty can be endured in the absence of satisfaction with team performance; however it is difficult to entertain loyalty development without satisfaction.
HYPOTHESES The research with regard to the sporting fan has as yet to provide definitive answers to how the fan is created and why sporting fans often display such strong levels of loyalty towards often poor or unsuccessful sporting clubs. The work of Oliver suggests loyalty can be developed on basis of four distinct strategies, two of which are particularly relevant for an investigation of the loyalty behaviour of sporting fans. Following from Oliver’s work the following hypotheses were developed in relation to Loyalty generation amongst AGF supporters.
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The following Hypotheses (H1 to H7) explore the desirability of the fan segment and the root causes that are thought to be influential in the formation of fan loyalty.
H1 – Highly loyal Fans will view fanship to AGF as a greater part of their self-identity than less loyal fans This hypothesis was developed as a simple procedural check to investigate the previous findings regarding the link between identity salience or an individuals identification with the team and that individuals level of loyalty to the team.
H2. Group belonging and social interaction will be more of an influence in game attendance for the Highly Loyal Fan (HLF) than for other fans Based on the village envelopment theory (Oliver top right Quadrant) and the findings with regard to the role of social group membership in identity formation it was suspected that Highly Loyal Fans’ would be highly concerned with gaining social acceptance and group belonging and that their ever present attendance would in some part be explained by a loyalty to their social group.
H3. Highly Loyal Fans will have supported AGF for a greater number of seasons than Less Loyal Supporters The hypothesis is aimed at verifying the role of habit and history in the creation of fan identity and Fan Loyalty. The consumer loyalty literature points to Habit and History as a significant factor (Sheth 1999)) in the building of brand loyalty. Based on this assumption it was assumed that dedicated fan-ship and loyalty to AGF would be developed over a number of seasons rather than being a short term behaviour.
H4. Greater numbers of Highly Loyal Fans’ will have been have attended games as children than less loyal supporters Hypothesis three again explores the role of habit and History amongst AGF supporters. It was assumed that highly loyal fans would have been more likely to attend AGF games as children than their less loyal counter parts.
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H5. Greater numbers of Highly Loyal Fans will report that during their youth their parents or relatives were AGF supporters than Less Loyal Supporters This hypothesis was based on the findings with regard to socialisation in fan creation and in particular the concept of intergenerational family influence as introduced by Sheth (1999)
H6. Highly Loyal Fans will evaluate game related violence and other negative behaviours more positively and more essential to a good match experience, than less loyal supporters. Furthering on the concept of Olivers Village envelopment theory relating to allegiance to a social group the above hypothesis was developed. The strong links between AGF and the hooligan group UWP led to the assumption that loyalty and association with this organisation may transfer to loyalty to AGF and a resulting strong fan loyalty.
H7. Highly Loyal Fans will evaluate non violent fan interaction –(chanting, singing, taunting and, goading opposition fans,) more positively and more essential to a good match experience, than other lees loyal supporters Sutton et al 1997) study suggested that as the level of fan interaction and involvement increases, the less likely a fans behaviour loyalty will be impacted on by team performance. It was assumed that high levels of fan interaction may be an instrumental social influence creating fan loyalty. Therefore Highly Loyal Fans were predicted to view non violent fan interaction as a more essential and positive match element than other fans.
Hypotheses eight and nine were developed in order to more fully examine additional factors directly related to AGF that were associated with fan loyalty.
H8. -Less Loyal Fans will evaluate the atmosphere inside Aarhus stadium as more negative and more of a deterrence to attendance than highly loyal fans The links of the AGF club with the White Pride group and the often hostile atmosphere at matches were assumed to be a factor in explaining a low attendance at AGF matches, particularly in terms of numbers of women and children. Less loyal fans were assumed to evaluate the “atmosphere” at the Stadium in a more negative manner than the more hard-core elements of the crowd.
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H9. Highly Loyal Fans will spend more on AGF merchandise than other less loyal fans The use of highly visible products such as shirts, caps , flags etc. is likely to play a role in enhancing the identity salience of the highly loyal sports supporter.(Fiske 1992) Based on the heightened behavioural and attitudinal loyalty of the HLF group, it was expected that this group would be more likely to purchase AGF related merchandise as a means to identifying themselves with the AGF brand.
Hypotheses ten, eleven and twelve were created to examine the role of satisfaction in the behaviour of the highly identified fan. The hypotheses aim to establish supporter satisfaction across both the teams on-field performance and the match experience as a whole.
H10. – Highly Loyal Fan’s will be more satisfied with AGF’s on-field performances than less loyal Fans An integral part of the Brand Loyalty phenomenon is for loyal consumers to hold positive attitudes towards, and to be satisfied with, their preferred brand. The core product supplied by sporting clubs is the team and the performances produced on the pitch, thus highly loyal consumers would be expected to evaluate the product or service more positively than less loyal consumers. Despite the irrationality of being satisfied with a poorly performing product or team it was assumed that the highly loyal fan would evaluate AGF’s on field performances more positively than the less loyal group. This predicted heightened satisfaction was posited to possibly stem from a lowered level of expectation on the part of the Highly Loyal Fan. Due to consistently poor results over an extended period of time it was assumed that the Highly Loyal fan may revise their expectations for the team as a means to avoiding potential disappointment.
H11. – Highly Loyal Fans will be more satisfied with match-day experiences than Less Loyal Supporters Sports fans have been shown to be motivated by a number of factors in their decision to attend sporting contests. A further possible explanation for the loyalty of sports followers may lie in the generating of satisfaction from sources unrelated to the core product (the sporting contest).
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According to Oliver’s Village envelopment theory with regard to loyalty creation, consumers may divulge satisfaction from being united with others and the solidarity this brings. Similarly a host of further external factors may be responsible for satisfaction amongst supporters. With this being the case it was predicted that Highly loyal fans would view the match day experience more positively than less loyal fans, suggesting a greater level of satisfaction with the off-field elements of the match experience.
H12. Highly Loyal fans will have been initially satisfied with their initial AGF consumption experiences This literature with regard to the consumer loyalty suggests a host of varying relationships between the constructs of satisfaction and loyalty. A scenario which would appear to be particularly relevant for sporting fans, based on their observed behaviour, encompasses satisfaction blossoming into a completely separate loyalty state.
Fig 7.1
Fig 7.2
LOYALTY SAT
LOY
SAT
The observed behaviour of the sporting fan suggests, as pictured in both diagrams above, an end state in which negative experiences or dissatisfaction are ineffectual in altering loyalty levels. The purpose of this hypothesis is to investigate what, if any, role satisfaction plays in creating this end
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– state. Can loyalty be developed during a complete absence of satisfaction? (fig 7.1) or is satisfaction a basis point for the creation of this loyalty state?(fig 7.2) Based on the unlikelihood that satisfaction is completely redundant it was assumed that amongst the highly loyal group initial satisfaction with the team will have been influential in the process of creating the loyalty state. While AGF’s recent performances in the Super League have been extremely disappointing, the club has achieved periods of sustained success and it was assumed that a number of AGF’s Highly Loyal fans may have first become attached to the club during periods where the club was more successful, and hence provided a greater satisfaction level, than is the case today.
THE STUDY
Identifying Highly Loyal Fans To identify the Highly Loyal fan, the background section of the questionnaire assessed both behavioural and attitudinal aspects of fans. To establish the individuals behavioural loyalty the following was asked
1.Number of home games attended per season 5 or under ---
6 to 11
12+
---
---
2. Number of away games attended per season? 2 or less
3 to 8
9+
---
---
---
Highly behaviourally loyal fans were considered to be those attending 12 or more home games and 3 or more away games.
To establish attitudinal loyalty the following were asked 1.How would you characterize your loyalty to the AGF Club?
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Not at all Loyal
Less loyal than other AGF fans More loyal than other AGF Fans Very Loyal
---
---
---
---
Participants were also asked the following in relation to their attitudinal loyalty “ I might rethink my allegiance to AGF and attend less games if the team were performing badly and their seemed little chance they would improve ie the team were relegated to division 1”
Strongly Disagree
Mildy Disagree
-----
----
Nuetral Mildly Agree ----
----
Strongly Agree ----
Those answering Very loyal to Question 1 and Strongly Disagree to question 2 were deemed to be Highly Attitudinally Loyal Fans
Those individuals falling into both the high attitudinal loyalty and high behavioural loyalty groups were labelled as Highly Loyal Fans, and the responses of this group were measured against the rest of the participants completing the questionnaire
The group identified were therefore those who were seemingly irrationally loyal and would continue to follow and remain aligned to the team regardless of the team’s quality or fortunes.
Questionnaire (see Appendix) A 22 item questionnaire was developed including previously developed measures of fan behaviour, plus a number of questions which were specifically developed for the purposes of this study. (see appendix). The participants were requested to answer the degree to which they agreed with statements made about their allegiance to the AGF club. A five point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree was used to gauge participants responses. Distribution of Questionnaire The questionnaire was posted on the home sites of both the official AGF supporters club (www.agf-fanclub.dk) and also the homesite of the Ultra white Pride group (http://www.geocities.com/agfuwp/) Questionnaires were also distributed before two AGF matches in May 2004.
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In all 257 AGF supporters were questioned, of these 82 participants were identified as Highly loyal Fans, the remaining 175 participants were identified as less loyal individuals. All analyses compared the responses of these two groups of AGF supporters.
Demographics The average age of participants was 26 .1 years Of the 257 individuals surveyed 29 were female fans and 228 were male. Highly Loyal The average age of Highly loyal fans was 26.1 years There were 75 highly loyal male fans and 7 females Less Loyal The average age of less loyal supporters was 26.8 years There were 153 less loyal male supporters and 22 females
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RESULTS The data collected with regard to the twelve hypotheses tested in this study were analysed using descriptive statistics, and ANOVA procedures. To test all the Hypotheses a Highly Loyal fan index was developed.
H1 – Highly loyal Fans will view fanship to AGF as a greater part of their self-identity than less loyal fans Results – Hypothesis supported As expected the Highly Loyal group viewed fanship to AGF as a much greater part of their self – identity than less loyal fans. Respondents were asked to reply to the following statement “My allegiance to AGF is a significant aspect of my lifestyle and self identity” The Data produced by this statement showed that of the Highly Loyal group of respondents 82.9 % agreed or strongly agreed that this would be the case, this was opposed to 59.9 % for the less loyal segment. ANOVA analysis of the data found a significant difference between the two groups at the .01 level (p