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DIVERSITY IN ATHLETICS: AN ASSESSMENT OF EXEMPLARS AND INSTITUTIONAL BEST PRACTICES George B. Cunningham and John N. Sin

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DIVERSITY IN ATHLETICS: AN ASSESSMENT OF EXEMPLARS AND INSTITUTIONAL BEST PRACTICES

George B. Cunningham and John N. Singer Laboratory for Diversity in Sport Texas A&M University In collaboration with

Office of Diversity and Inclusion National Collegiate Athletic Association

Foreword

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Overview

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What is diversity? How does diversity impact the workplace? Need for diversity best practices

Institutional best practices



General overview Value of diversity Institutional analysis Diversity training Integration of diversity initiatives throughout the department Proactive hiring process Integration of athletics into the fabric of the university Mentoring/Creating a pipeline Honest and open communication Bold top management leadership Professional development opportunities

Diversity in marketing best practices



 thletics linked with broader A campus environment Athletics as something “for” the fans Integrating the student-athletes into the university community Rising costs Developing relationships Diversity breeds diversity Additional references

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Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s

The foundations of this project began to form in the Fall of 2005. At that time, persons at the Laboratory for Diversity in Sport at Texas A&M University conceived of the idea for, collected data pertaining to, and selected the first recipients of the Diversity in Athletics Award. This award recognizes those athletics departments that excelled in a number of areas of diversity, including the demographic diversity of the department, the diversity culture, graduation rates of under-represented student-athletes, Title IX compliance (substantial proportionality), and Overall Excellence in Diversity. Award recipients were again named in 2006, with the focus in both years on Division I Football Bowl Subdivision athletics departments. In 2007, the Laboratory for Diversity in Sport partnered with the NCAA’s Office of Diversity and Inclusion to both expand the scope of the award and explore the underlying diversity-related dynamics operating in these workplaces. With respect to the former objective, award recipients were named for all Divisions I and II athletics departments in 200708 and for all Division III departments in 2008-09. In addressing the second objective of the partnership, we made campus visits to award recipients to better understand the nature of diversity within the workplace. In doing so, we interviewed athletics department employees and campus administrators, observed the workplace, and analyzed both internal and external documents. These rich data sources allowed us to develop the Organizational Best Practices found in this work. Simultaneous to this data collection process, we also collected qualitative data to determine best practices for attracting a diverse fan base. Specifically, we interviewed marketing directors at select universities and also engaged in discussions with current students. The data from this process resulted in the Diversity in Marketing Best Practices, also found in this work. In short, our efforts have been aimed at identifying the diversity exemplars and assessing institutional best practices. Our hope in all of this is that athletics administrators can now use this information to create and sustain a workplace characterized by diversity and inclusion.

foreword George B. Cunningham and John N. Singer Laboratory for Diversity in Sport, Texas A&M University Charlotte Westerhaus and Chris Ruckdaschel, National Collegiate Athletic Association Diversity and Inclusion

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overview

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W h at i s d i v e r s i t y ?

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Broadly defined, diversity is any way in which people differ. Of course, some characteristics among people are more salient and symbolically meaningful than are others. For instance, whether or not one is left handed is not linked to the opportunities, status, or work experiences that individual has, while other characteristics, such as gender, race, and physical ability, are. Thus, issues of historical significance, power, and politicality are linked with the concept of diversity. Many discussions of diversity focus on demographic characteristics, such as sex, age, race, physical ability, national origin, and gender. However, diversity is not only confined to these dimensions, as people can vary in their attitudes and values, religious beliefs, political persuasion, and functional area of expertise — all of which have the potential to influence social interactions and work experiences. Finally, diversity, by its very nature, has the potential to benefit athletics teams and organizational workplaces. Bringing together varied perspectives, life experiences, and viewpoints adds value to the workplace and reinforces the concept of inclusivity.

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Diversity has the potential to impact the workplace in several ways. From one perspective, diversity-related shortcomings in university athletics are all too common. Women and racial minorities are under-represented in coaching and leadership positions. Student-athletes of color graduate at lower rates than do their counterparts, and far too often, do not graduate at all. Gay, lesbian and bisexual coaches and student-athletes are sometimes relegated to second-class status and forced to conceal their identities. The same is true for religious minorities. In each of these cases, these negative effects are the result of poor diversity management, a lack of workplace inclusiveness, and a general lack of valuing diversity. Of course, this is not the case in all areas of athletics. Some departments excel both on the court and in the area of diversity. These departments are places where diversity and inclusion are ingrained into the very fabric of the department, and all people, irrespective of their individual differences, are afforded equal opportunities. Indeed, diversity brings considerable value to the workplace, such as greater marketplace understanding, a breath of decision-making comprehensiveness not otherwise realized, and increased creativity. Student-athletes and employees in these departments, regardless of their personal characteristics, are more satisfied with their work, report higher levels of morale, and are likely to make more substantial workplace contributions. Not surprisingly, diversity reliably influences organizational effectiveness, as these departments have been found to continually outperform their counterparts on objective measures of success, such as Director’s Cup points. In short, these athletics departments capitalize on the promise diversity and inclusion bring.

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How does D i v e r s i t y I m pa c t the Workplace?

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Need for Diversity Best Practices

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Given the many benefits diversity and inclusion can bring to an organization, efforts have been made to improve the workplace in these respects. Of course, any change is difficult, and diversityrelated transformations are no different. An athletics department’s history, values, and taken-for-granted assumptions, coupled with the larger institutional environment in which it is embedded, all serve as factors that could potentially impede change efforts. Therein lies the need for diversity best practices, or principles that have been shown to be effective in creating and sustaining diversity within intercollegiate athletics. This booklet is organized into two sections. In the first section, we highlight best practices related to creating and sustaining an organization of diversity and inclusion. In the second section, we focus specifically on attracting a diverse fan base and the best practices associated with doing so. To develop the institutional best practices, we conducted interviews with more than 60 persons, including chancellors, provosts, admissions officers, faculty, athletics directors, athletics administrators, coaches, student-athletes, and other athletics department representatives from universities that had been previously recognized for their excellence in diversity. Based on these discussions, 10 different best practices were identified and are outlined in the following sections. In each case, numerous persons from different universities noted the importance of the best practice in their diversity-related efforts. To develop the diversity marketing best practices, we drew from some of the information used in the organizational best practices. Additionally, however, we conducted interviews with 13 persons, including seven marketing directors of Football Bowl Subdivision athletics departments and six African-American students (three men and three women). Finally, we collected quantitative data from 911 athletics administrators representing 258 NCAA Division I athletics departments. All of these data sources were used in developing the guiding principles. Our intent in disseminating this information is to provide administrators with tools needed to create a more diverse and inclusive workplace within their athletics departments.

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INSTITUTIONAL BEST PRACTICES

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General Overview

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In presenting the results from our research, we first highlight the guiding principle, followed by a brief explanation and representative examples from the athletics departments we visited. We were intentional in the order in which the best practices are presented. Specifically, creating and maintaining a workplace characterized by diversity and inclusion begins with first valuing diversity. Then, it is important for administrators to fully understand the effects of employee differences in the workplace; that is, it is important to conduct an institutional analysis. Once these steps have been taken, the remaining principles should be implemented.

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Employees must value diversity — this is most critical to creating and sustaining a workplace of diversity and inclusion. Without such appreciation and esteem, even the best laid plans are likely to fail. So, what does valuing diversity look like? Best Practice Example: From one perspective, people who value diversity sense a moral obligation to provide equitably for all persons, irrespective of their individual differences. Best Practice Example: Valuing diversity can also go beyond this, however. Administrators, coaches, and student-athletes in our research all spoke of the appreciation they had in learning from those who were different. In doing so, they came to discover information about different countries, cultures, perspectives, and ways of thinking — all of which made them better people. Best Practice Example: Valuing diversity also means appreciating people for who they are and everything they bring to the table. Doing so allows for closer and more meaningful relationships with various stakeholder groups, such as employees, student-athletes, fans, and donors.

Value of Diversity

Best Practice Example: Finally, according to the administrators in our research, valuing diversity means moving beyond compliance; it entails developing an ethos or a culture of valuing diversity. In this way, diversity is enmeshed into the very fabric of the department, its values, and strategy. As these examples illustrate, valuing diversity can take several forms and likely looks differently depending on the person and context. Notwithstanding these variations, valuing differences among people is a fundamental element of creating diversity and inclusion.

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Athletics departments in our research also pointed to the importance of conducting an institutional analysis, whereby managers investigate diversity and inclusion in all areas of the organization. Note that such analyses go beyond simply examining the proportion of women and racial minorities at different levels of the athletics department. As noted diversity scholar Sally Shaw has written, “conceptualizing a social justice aim like equality, which is fluid and broadly defined, as achievable and thus measurable is deeply flawed and misleading. …Measurement ignores the complex power and political relationships that are inherent in considering the intersectionality of marginalized and under-represented groups.”

Institutional A n a ly s i s

Best Practice Example: Athletics departments in our study recognized the importance of going beyond surface-level characteristics. In one example in particular, members of an athletics department collectively went through an extensive institutional analysis in which they examined the diversity of the personnel, and the underlying values that guided the organization, the “deep structure” of the workplace that shaped how and why organizational activities took place, and taken-for-granted power and political structures in place. All members of the department were represented in this analysis, and engaging in such a process allowed the department to critically analyze its “ways of doing things” and to then take proactive steps in shaping the diversity culture of the workplace. Analyzing the taken-for-granted values and deeply embedded institutional activities can be a daunting process. However, the rewards are great. Such an activity allows for an understanding of where the institution is situated in terms of the representation of various person groups, the power and political structures in place, and the opportunities afforded to organizational members. Without such an analysis, subsequent diversity efforts are likely to be misguided.

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Diversity training has been described as an educational process whereby people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes about diversity-related issues. The need for diversity training in athletics departments, coupled with the concomitant benefits associated with these experiences, was a major theme from our research. Best Practice Example: In our research, studentathletes, coaches, administrators, and other athletics department staff emphasized how these training sessions allowed them to gain a greater understanding of and appreciation for how people who are different from them experience work and interact with others. These types of educational experiences have been shown to create a harmonious work environment, and thus, the potential for an organization that has workers who are efficient and effective in carrying out their duties and tasks.

Diversity Training

Therefore, athletics departments that are serious about adopting diversity training programs must be certain that the training a) is designed for the department’s specific needs (i.e., conduct a needs analysis or diversity audit), b) is a central part to their mission, c) has top management support, and d) is likely to benefit the trainees and department as a whole.

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To truly realize the benefits of diversity, the diversity initiatives should be fully integrated throughout the entire athletics department. In such cases, diversity and inclusion are seen as contributing to the success of all departmental activities. What’s more, ensuring that the department is a workplace that values diversity and inclusion is the responsibility of all people, including top administrators, support staff, coaches, and student-athletes. In short, this means making diversity and inclusion a central part of the values, mission, and strategy of the department. Best Practice Example: In most of the departments we visited, diversity was seen as an important issue for all persons — not just a select few. Administrators in these departments argued against having one person, such as the Senior Woman Administrator, or one group, such as a Diversity Committee, be “in charge” of all the department’s diversity plan. Rather, diversity was seen as a concern for all persons, from the development officers to the life skills coordinators, and so on.

I n t e g r at i o n o f D i v e r s i t y I n i t i at i v e s Best Practice Example: Athletics departments throughout the in our research that had effectively integrated diversity initiatives throughout the department came D e pa rt m e n t to see all issues through a diversity lens. In one example in particular, development officers came to think about the timing of their functions and how the days and times could impact (in this case) one’s observance of a religious holiday. As several of their donors were Jewish, the original plan to hold the function during Yom Kippur was obviously problematic. Thus, by having this awareness, they moved the function to another date and time in order to accommodate all persons.

Clearly, diversity administrators or committees can provide the needed expertise and leadership to move diversity to the forefront; however, relegating all diversity and inclusion efforts to a single person or committee trivializes those initiatives and ensures that the benefits of a diverse workplace will never be realized. Thus, diversity and inclusion must be integrated throughout the entire organizational system — that is, into all organizational activity and by all persons associated with the department.

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Within college athletics, there are several positions, from head and assistant coaches to senior administrators and administrative assistants, that hiring managers need to fill. In particular, when it comes to hiring employees from under-represented groups (e.g., women, racial minorities, people with disabilities) into athletics, it is important to focus on the entry point. Best Practice Example: Participants in our interviews forcefully argued that administrators should not only focus on hiring persons from under-represented groups into the areas of academic services, life skills, and compliance, but also into areas such as development, marketing, and finance because these are typically the areas that set employees on the career track to becoming senior administrators. Our research revealed that in order for diversity and inclusion to be present in athletics, the hiring process for administrators, coaches, and other department employees must be purposeful. In other words, decision-makers should be proactive in hiring employees from marginalized and under-represented groups, and approach the recruitment and selection of these employees with the same vigor and effort as they do for student-athletes.

Proactive Hiring Process

Best Practice Example: In one particular case, for example, an athletics director was very active in going out, finding, and creating a strong pool of racial minority female candidates for the head coaching position of a women’s sport team. Best Practice Example: Moreover, collaborating with the NCAA and other organizations in efforts to create resources (e.g., data base) that can assist hiring managers with identifying and reaching out to these candidates is important. Collectively, these examples point to the merits of proactively and purposefully searching for, recruiting, attracting, and retaining members of underrepresented groups to the workplace.

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A number of people in our research, both within and outside the athletics department, spoke to the importance of the athletics department, its members, and the activities being fully integrated into the fabric of the university. Such an integration is manifested in several ways. There is a need to broaden the definition of athletics as a learning community. As a department on campus that has high visibility and great influence, athletics could be used as a vehicle not only to educate and develop the students who participate in varsity sports, but also the student body as a whole. Best Practice Example: For example, one of the athletics departments in our study has a campus-wide initiative that focuses on educating students, faculty, and staff about issues pertaining to their health and well-being, and encouraging them to take action that positively impacts their overall quality of life.

I n t e g r at i o n o f At h l e t i c s i n t o the Fabric of the University

Second, and related to the first point, athletics departments should make concerted efforts to form alliances with other departments and units on campus, and break down any silos that might exist between athletics and the broader university community. Athletics department employees and student-athletes should be encouraged to engage in experiences with other departments and units on campus. Best Practice Example: For example, one of the athletics departments we visited has one of its athletics administrators serving on the institutional review board for the office that focuses on ethics in research at the university. As another example, some of the athletics departments have coaches and administrators teaching courses open to the entire student body. Best Practice Example: As another example, some departments in our research made efforts to attract student groups, faculty, and staff to attend sporting events and other athletics department functions, and to work with student-athletes in various capacities. All of these examples point to the importance of integrating athletics into the broader fabric of the university environment.

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Mentoring has been described as a process in which a more experienced person serves as a role model, provides guidance and support to a developing novice, and sponsors that individual’s career progress. The importance of mentoring to the career development of women, racial minorities, and other marginalized or under-represented groups in intercollegiate athletics was discussed by many of the athletics department stakeholders we interviewed. Best Practice Example: In discussing some of his positive experiences and the social networks he gained as a participant in the NCAA’s diversity and inclusion programs, one of the African-American male athletics administrators stressed the need for employees to be provided with great mentors; moreover, in reflecting on the mentors that have helped him in his career, he emphasized the importance of having mentors from similar (e.g., same racial group) and diverse (e.g., different racial group) backgrounds.

M e n t o r i n g / C r e at i n g a Pipeline

Support for these various kinds of mentor/ protégé relationships are important considerations for senior administrators who are concerned with creating a pipeline of talented, promising employees from diverse backgrounds who are capable of assuming positions of leadership within intercollegiate athletics.

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Human communication is one of the most basic and fundamental functions of individuals within an organizational setting. The importance of honest and open communication concerning diversity in athletics departments was something that emerged from our interviews.

Honest and Open C o m m u n i c at i o n

Best Practice Example: In particular, one of the athletics directors was adamant about the need for him, as a leader, to be honest, open, and transparent about his perspectives and positions on diversity matters, and the need for him to encourage and allow his employees to do the same. In other words, there must be a desire from leadership on down the organizational chart to create an environment and atmosphere in which people are comfortable speaking openly and candidly about the topic of diversity and their perspectives on it. In this regard, athletics department leadership plays a vital role in setting the tone for the discourse on issues of diversity and inclusion within the department. This openness is necessary if there is a genuine interest in creating and sustaining a culture in which diversity is valued. The value of such openness is seen in other respects, too. Best Practice Example: Researchers have shown that groups characterized by open communication and collaboration more constructively use the divergent perspective that accompany diverse workplaces. On the other hand, in organizations with closed communication lines and a competitive culture, divergent perspectives breed emotional conflict and strife. Thus, the open and honest communication concerning diversity issues is key.

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Bold leadership from the top leaders is needed to ensure diversity and inclusion. As Taylor Cox has noted, “Leaders must understand the implications of diversity, ask tough questions in performance reviews, and provide ongoing communication about the priority of the work. They must also explain how managing diversity is connected to other aspects of the business model.” This support, which comes both from athletics administrators and campus leaders, is demonstrated in several ways. Best Practice Example: Leaders in our research demonstrated strong enthusiasm for diversity and made inclusion a priority. By doing so, they also modeled the attitudes and behaviors expected of others in the department. Best Practice Example: As another example, the athletics directors in our research all went through diversity training with the other department employees as a way to signal their commitment to that effort. The bold top leadership was also seen by holding people accountable for how they contributed to the department’s diversity efforts. This was observed in such areas as human resource decisions, marketing and promotions, and the opportunities afforded to others.

Bold Top Management Leadership

Indeed, absent strong leadership, diversity initiatives are doomed. Presidents and athletics directors must demonstrate their commitment and strong passion for diversity and inclusion.

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Providing professional development opportunities for employees is a very important human resource practice because it allows an organization to attract and retain employees from diverse backgrounds, and it could also help these employees to perform their duties and tasks more efficiently and effectively.

Professional Development Opportunities

Best Practice Example: One of our interviewees who worked in the area of diversity and access at the university level insisted that it is important for athletics departments and other units on campus to “develop people so that they are able to develop people,” meaning employers should invest in their employees in ways that allow them to maximize their own potential and nurture the growth and development of those with whom they work. The primary mission and goal of intercollegiate athletics center on the overall development of the student-athlete. Therefore, those coaches, administrators, and support staff who work with and on behalf of this primary stakeholder group should be provided the opportunities to develop their skills and talents. Best Practice Example: Athletics department personnel in our research were encouraged to participate in various workshops, conferences, and other endeavors that allowed them to sharpen their skills, and develop the knowledge and attitudes that are necessary to successfully serve the students and other groups with which they interact. In short, athletics departments that value diversity and inclusion encourage professional development opportunities for their employees, and in doing so, have increasingly competitive workforces.

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D I VER S I T Y I N MARKETING BEST PRACTICES

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What happens in the broader campus community is likely to impact people’s reactions to the athletics department and their likelihood of supporting campus sport events. Students in our research continually pointed to the connection between the diversity culture on the campus and what they perceived to be the diversity culture in the athletics department. For instance, students believed that strained race relations within the university community were emblematic of the racial dynamics within the athletics department. And, this interconnectedness worked the other way, too, such that students were more likely to be involved with athletic events when they believed that the university had a progressive At h l e t i c s L i n k e d diversity culture. What, then, does this mean for athletics? In many with Broader cases, athletics is the leader of the campus when it Campus Environment comes to diversity-related issues. Consider, for instance, that the demographic diversity of the athletics department is likely greater than that of the student body. On some campuses, women and people of color are more likely to be in leadership positions within the athletics department than they are in the general university setting. Athletics departments should make these successes known to others. Just as athletic victories and academic accomplishments are points of pride touted to others, so too are diversity achievements, and they should be treated as such. The more people know of the progressive diversity culture within the athletics department, the more likely they are to identify with that entity.

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At h l e t i c s a s something “for” the fans

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Students and marketing directors in our research both suggested that a diverse fan base is likely to be realized when athletics is seen as something that is “for” those fans. As an example, athletics administrators at one private institution saw the potential disconnect between the members of the local communities and their traditional alumni base (which was largely White and affluent). As such, they made special efforts to reach out to the community members throughout the year to illustrate that their athletics events could be enjoyed by all. This meant advertising in English and Spanish, strategically posting flyers in certain shopping markets and stores, and making lasting connections with specific churches and religious groups. All of these efforts were aimed at making a connection with persons who would be considered beyond the “traditional” fan at that university, and in doing so, showing that athletics on that campus was “for” all in the community. Another way of thinking of this is that diverse fans are likely to attend sport events on campus when they highly identify with that entity. Thus, the athletics department must make a personal connection with the fans such that the teams’ successes and failures are seen as their successes and failures. The sport marketing literature has consistently shown the positive effects of sport dynamics, as highly identified sport fans are more likely to attend games, follow their teams in the newspaper, and purchase licensed materials.

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One of the most consistent themes we heard from the students we interviewed was that they felt a disconnect with the student-athletes on campus, and as such, felt little to no obligation to support them. This was particularly the case for racial minority student-athletes and the various racial and ethnic minority student groups and organizations on these campuses. For instance, a representative at a cultural center on one campus suggested that the studentathletes were sheltered from other campus activities. Student-athletes of color also spent little time at the cultural center, even though it was a popular destination for other students of color. As a result, she suggested that the students were reticent to show support for those student-athletes and their teams. Consistent with the ideas of a well-rounded educational experience, then, student-athletes should be encouraged to participate in extracurricular activities. Not only will such engagement benefit the student-athlete, but it will also provide a connectedness between athletics and various student groups, thereby increasingly the likelihood of support and event attendance.

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I n t e g r at i n g t h e S t u d e n t- At h l e t e s into the University Community

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Rising Costs

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Both students and marketing directors pointed to the negative effects rising ticket prices had on attracting a diverse fan base. Indeed, the students we interviewed, who were all working their way through school, pointed to the high ticket costs as a substantial deterrent in their decision to attend sport events. The marketing directors also recognized this possibility, especially for families. As a result, many of the directors developed multi-game plans targeted at families. For instance, to promote the men’s basketball games at one school, the marketing department developed a “family four pack,” where the family receives four game tickets, four hot dogs, and four drinks for $40. This option is only available in four-game bundles. Other departments have adopted similar approaches. One marketing director said, “We offer family season ticket plans that are very affordable. People have limited discretionary income, so we recognized that people, in an effort to trim their spending, might cut their tickets first. So, we developed a season ticket plan at a discount.” As with the previous example, the ticket plan includes a minimum of four tickets per game. The results have been impressive, as sales increased from 200 plans in Year 1 to 1,000 in Year 3. It is possible that similar plans, developed for students, would yield similar results.

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Athletics departments are more likely to attract a diverse fan base when there is a lasting relationship cultivated with those stakeholders. Conversely, one-time promotions aimed at attracting certain market segments are likely to fail. The following two examples illustrate these points. At one university, international students were offered discounted tickets to one of the football games and those persons were recognized at halftime of the game. They were also offered the option of having a student worker escort them to the game. These efforts were well-intentioned and aimed at generating greater interest in the sport among international students. However, this was the only effort made during the year to reach out to the international students on campus. According to the marketing director at that university, this resulted in the students questioning the athletics department’s motives and them feeling that the sport was being “pushed on them.” As a result, participation was low. Unlike the one-time approach of the previous example, another university regularly offers a 4-H night at the women’s basketball game, which is followed by an autograph session after the game. This night is meaningful because the university serves as the center for the state’s 4-H program and works cooperatively with the high schools in the state on 4-H related activities. Thus, the promotions held at the women’s basketball games are just part of the ongoing relationship with that organization and its members, all of which help to attract the rural population to the events. As these two examples illustrate, athletics departments are more likely to attract diverse fans when the promotions are aligned with a lasting relationship already in place.

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Developing R e l at i o n s h i p s

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Diversity Breeds Diversity

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Finally, our study indicates that diversity within a department is linked to the attraction of a diverse fan base. This pattern was observed in our quantitative analysis of 258 NCAA Division I athletics departments. We found that both gender and racial diversity in the department were positively associated with the attraction of a diverse fan base. This pattern was influenced by the culture of the workplace. That is, the positive association between departmental diversity and the attraction of a diverse fan base was stronger when the department also had a progressive culture of diversity. On the other hand, the positive effects of departmental diversity were minimized when the culture of the workplace was not one that valued differences. The positive influence of diversity on the attraction of a diverse fan base is due to a number of factors. First, increased diversity means improved marketplace understanding. As Gail Robinson and Kathleen Dechant note, “The cultural understanding needed to market to these demographic niches resides most naturally in marketers with the same cultural background.” Second, the presence of a diverse workforce and progressive departmental culture is not lost on consumers. Robinson and Dechant note that “companies can benefit from the good will of diverse consumers who prefer to spend their dollars on products produced by a diverse workforce or to give patronage to businesses with a diverse salesforce.” Our research suggests that this is certainly the case within intercollegiate athletics.

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Agars, M. D., & Kottke, J.L. (2004). Models and practice of diversity management: A historical review and presentation of a new integrated theory. In M.S. Stockdale & F.J. Crosby (Eds.), The psychology and management of workplace diversity (pp. 55-77). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Beyer, J.M., & Hannah, D.R. (2000). The cultural significance of athletics in U.S. higher education. Journal of Sport Management, 14, 105-132. Brooks, D.D., & Althouse, R.C. (Eds.) (2007). Diversity and social justice in college sports: Sport management and the student athlete. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Cox, T. (2002). Taking diversity to the next level. Executive Excellence, 19, 19.

ADDITIONAL RE F ERENCES

Cunningham, G.B. (in press). The moderating effect of diversity strategy on the relationship between racial diversity and organizational performance. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. Cunningham, G.B. (2007). Diversity in sport organizations. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb-Hathaway. DiTomaso, N., Post, C., Parks-Yancy, R. (2007). Workforce diversity and inequality: Power, status, and numbers. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 473-501.

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Ely, R.J., & Thomas, D.A. (2001). Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 229-273. Holvino, E., Ferdman, B.M., & Merrill-Sands, D. (2004). Creating and sustaining diversity and inclusion in organizations: Strategies and approaches. In M.S. Stockdale & F.J. Crosby (Eds.), The psychology and management of workplace diversity (pp. 245-276). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Lovelace, K., Shapiro, D.L., & Weingart, L.R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams’ innovativeness and constrain adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 779-793. Robinson, G., & Dechant, K. (1997). Building a business case for diversity. Academy of Management Executive, 11(3), 21-31. Shaw, S. (2007). Touching the intangible? An analysis of The Equality Standard: A Framework for Sport. Equal Opportunities International, 26, 420-434. Weaver, M.A., & Chelladurai, P. (1999). A mentoring model for management in sport and physical education. Quest, 51, 24-38. Weaver, M.A., & Chelladurai, P. (2002). Mentoring in intercollegiate athletic administration. Journal of Sport Management, 16, 96-116.