by - Welcome to the University of Warwick Flipbook PDF

an ethnic group on the basis of perceived natural differences. It is enclosed by single inverted commas to indicate that

---

118 Views
20 Downloads
FLIP PDF 597.13KB

DOWNLOAD FLIP

REPORT DMCA

Housing Experiences of Minority Ethnic Communities in Britain: an academic literature review and annotated bibliography

by

Richard Tomlins

Bibliographies in Ethnic Relations No.15

Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL

April 1999

Contents

Acknowledgements

Foreword

1

An Academic Literature Review

3

References and Annotated Bibliography

28

Some Standing Sources and Web Sites

149

Acknowledgements Thanks to Anne Shaw, Lynn Wright, Beryl Pine-Coffin and Rose Goodwin for their help with this bibliography.

Biographical Note Dr Richard Tomlins is Senior Lecturer in Housing at De Montfort University. His research interests include ‘race’ and housing issues in Europe.

Anne Shaw is the editor of the Bibliography Series produced by the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations. She is Librarian of the Centre’s Resources Centre.

Housing Experiences of Minority Ethnic Communities in Britain: an academic literature review and annotated bibliography

Foreword This publication has two main aims. It aims, firstly, to provide an overview of the housing experiences and needs of minority ethnic1 communities in Britain and secondly to provide a guide to the current key academic publications in the field of race2 and housing in Britain through an annotated bibliography. These aims address a neglected area of study. The increasing dependence of the majority of households on owner-occupation accessed through the private market has depoliticised and consequently marginalised housing issues within British society. Similarly, academic research has focused on services more overtly funded through the public purse, such as health and education, at the expense of housing research. Indeed, these trends are reflected in the literature review within this publication which draws upon a relatively large literature concerning access to the social rented sector at the expense of an examination of access to private sector resources. The lack of emphasis on housing issues and housing research in Britain is problematic since housing occupies a crucial place in the life chances of all communities. At one level it simply reflects wider advantages and disadvantages experienced by different groups within society. Therefore, wealth, employment, income, education, health and status, amongst other factors, enable and disable access to different tenures and different standards of housing. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasise that housing outcomes are also, in turn, able to confer privileged or restricted access to societys opportunities. This not only occurs because of the direct link between housing and health, including our sense of identity and self-worth, but also because of the ways in which societys resources are unevenly

distributed locations.

between

and

within

geographical

The bibliography in this publication retains a housing focus and is not able, therefore, to reflect all of these inter-relationships. However, literature referring to the employment position of housing staff from minority ethnic communities is included where it appears to affect housing provision. Similarly reports addressing the accountability of housing organisations are also included. In addition to the literature review and annotated bibliography, a list of some standing sources and websites is provided at the end of the bibliography. It should finally be noted that it is intended to update this publication periodically. The author, therefore, would be grateful for any omissions or new publications to be drawn to his attention c/o Anne Shaw, the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations at the University of Warwick. _____________________________________________________ ____________ Footnotes 1

The use of minority ethnic is preferred as a term to ethnic minorities since, as Ratcliffe notes: The term ethnic minority (group) ... suggests implicitly that minorities may be the only ones that possess an ethnicity. (Minority ethnic group by contrast suggests - correctly - that we all have an ethnicity, but some groups are larger, or smaller, than others). (Ratcliffe 1996b: 26)

2

Ethnicity is preferred as a term to race throughout this research, since it is not widely thought to possess the same connotations of innate values often mistakenly associated with racial identity (Giddens 1993: 255). However, race is still referred to throughout this publication where it is in common usage as a phenotypical label, or where it indicates the racialisation of

an ethnic group on the basis of perceived natural differences. It is enclosed by single inverted commas to indicate that it does not represent an endorsement of natural difference. The use of phrases such as racial equality are presented throughout the text without inverted commas where it appears to the author that their everyday usage does not contain this implication. The preference for the use of ethnicity rather than race within this research means that those communities commonly referred to as black and white communities are, where possible in the literature review, respectively referred to as minority ethnic and majority ethnic communities, the latter excluding Irish and other minority white communities unless specifically indicated to the contrary.

An Academic Literature Review Introduction It has become axiomatic (see Brown 1984, Mason 1995 and Skellington 1996 for just three examples) to note the inequalities which are generally experienced by minority ethnic communities throughout society. We might, therefore, assume that minority ethnic communities will experience inequalities in access to, and consumption of, housing, and that these inequalities will contribute to a continuing cycle of disadvantage. Consequently it might be assumed that minority ethnic communities are in greater housing need than the majority ethnic community, but the concept of need can be problematic. Percy-Smith has argued that: the concept of needs has been taken pretty much for granted ... [it has been believed that] needs could be objectively identified, measured and used as a, if not the, criterion for gaining access to resources. (Percy-Smith 1996: 5) Doyal and Goughs (1991: 191-193) assertion that there is a universal need for adequate protective housing can be seen as representing an uncontroversial viewpoint within this debate. However, the assessment of the housing needs of minority ethnic communities has been a contentious process which has demonstrated the practical difficulties of even defining the meaning of adequate housing. Ratcliffe (1996b: 23-24) identifies existing housing conditions, the effects of ill health and impairments, geographical preferences and the existence of concealed families (those who have the aspiration to move from the existing family unit and form a separate household) as the four key elements of housing need. Assessments of the housing needs of minority ethnic communities have typically centred upon a lively debate around the relative importance of housing choices and housing constraints. The choice theorists argue that the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities should not simply be equated with housing need if they are the product of voluntary choices and,

therefore, do not require a professional, policy or political response. Those commentators who argue that the dominant factors in housing outcomes have been the constraints restricting the housing choices available to minority ethnic communities, for example in the form of discrimination, emphasise the need for a response to address these barriers from housing organisations, policy makers and legislators. The convention has been to view the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities as reflecting the choices exercised by those communities within a greater system of constraints than those facing white majority communities. Therefore, much of the race and housing literature, (and equally the work of housing researchers in general), has become concerned with mapping the housing outcomes of households and then using the results as indicators of housing need to influence housing policy. There have until recently been relatively few pieces of research examining the housing aspirations and demands of minority ethnic communities (although these might in any case be shaped by a perception of the options available), and this literature review reflects these limitations. An indication of the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities will be provided prior to discussion of the arguments concerning the relative importance of factors of choice and constraint upon the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities which have dominated the race and housing literature.

Housing outcomes The 1991 Census has allowed a relatively up-to-date picture to be constructed of the differences between the housing experiences of the majority ethnic community and minority ethnic communities. It portrays, generally, a growing concentration of minority ethnic communities in urban areas (Robinson 1993), although there is segregation between minority ethnic communities as well as between minority ethnic communities and the majority ethnic community (Peach and Rossiter 1996: 129). Harrison et al. suggest that

the increasing geographical concentration of minority ethnic communities reflects: White out-migration from areas of [minority] ethnic group residence, the in-migration of new arrivals to the country, the higher fertility rates of [minority] ethnic groups and new household formation among the [minority] ethnic groups. (Harrison et al. 1996: 54) In general, minority ethnic communities are increasingly concentrated in poor quality districts of cities and also in poor quality housing in comparison with majority ethnic communities. However, amongst the cities and towns in which this growing concentration has occurred, there are also some modest examples of suburbanisation amongst particular minority ethnic communities, although as Owen (1996a: 121) notes, the extent of these trends should become more apparent when the data from the 2001 Census becomes available. We should also emphasise the limitations of any generalisations given the considerable heterogeneity in housing outcomes and indeed, more widely, the life experiences of minority ethnic communities with respect to a range of factors which will affect access to housing. It is clear, for example, that there are differing opportunities for households to benefit from the commodification of housing by purchasing good quality owner-occupied housing: Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and West Indian households, in declining order of probability, are particularly likely to be on low incomes. Analysis of 1991 Census data shows that over half of Bangladeshis were living in wards which were in the most deprived tenth nationally ranked by unemployment, economic activity or lack of car ownership (Green 1994) ... The widening in income inequalities over the last two decades is evident across minority ethnic groups with Indian and Chinese households diverging in their socioeconomic trajectories from the position of Bangladeshi, Pakistani and black people.

(Law 1996: 86) These results reflect changing employment opportunities and achievements, although in general it should be noted that minority ethnic communities remain more likely to be unemployed and at lower levels of organisations (Modood 1997, Owen 1997). Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Chinese households are also less likely than other communities to claim their full benefit entitlements to offset economic hardship (Law 1996: 61-74). Whilst the stigma of claiming plays a part within this process, racism has also been an important influence alongside the dominant institutional attitudes which characterised the Department of Social Securitys (DSS) refusal to accept responsibility for people who do not understand DSS communications in English (Craig and Rai 1996: 134). The tenure data from the 1991 Census demonstrates that households from the majority ethnic community are more likely to be owner-occupiers than minority ethnic communities, that they rent from local authorities in similar numbers to minority ethnic communities, but are less likely to be renting properties from housing associations or private landlords (Owen 1993: 7). However, whilst African Caribbean households were far less likely to be owner-occupiers than majority ethnic households, South Asian households were far more likely to be owner-occupiers. These figures are also reflected in occupation of social sector accommodation, with African Caribbean households far more likely and Asian households far less likely to be renting from the social sector. Even these headline figures must be treated with caution since within the category of South Asian, the housing outcomes of Bangladeshi communities are far closer to the outcomes of African Caribbean communities than the rest of the South Asian group (Peach 1996a: 19). This generalisation must in turn be treated with care since Harrison et al. (1996: 57) note that a high proportion of Bangladeshi households living outside London are owner-occupiers. Chinese communities are relatively distinct from the other minority ethnic communities with slightly higher levels of owner-occupation than

minority ethnic communities as a whole, but also high levels of private renting. Other South East Asian communities appear to have lower levels of owneroccupation and still higher representation within the private rented sector than the Chinese community. These 1981:

outcomes

reflect

some

modest

changes

since

Overall, owner-occupation levels have increased from 59-66 per cent, principally as a result of government policy, whilst council housing and private renting have declined. The data indicate that while White, Bangladeshi and Chinese ownership levels have increased over this period, the tenure pattern for the Indians and Pakistanis has not changed significantly. This reflects their very high ownership levels in the 1980s and their low representation in the council housing sector. Black Caribbean ownership rates have increased moderately, from about 40-48 per cent, and there is evidence that the young middle class members of this group are increasingly moving into home ownership. (Harrison et al. 1996: 59) Nevertheless, minority ethnic households are disproportionately likely to be in the poorest quality owner-occupied housing (Ratcliffe 1997a, Phillips 1997) and, therefore, this tenure should not automatically be equated with a privileged housing position. The English House Condition Survey (EHCS) (1991) and the 1991 Census also provide some indicators of housing need. Only limited conclusions can be drawn from the EHCS since it draws upon relatively small sample sizes of minority ethnic communities but it indicates that it is the Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities which are particularly likely to be in the worst housing conditions. Other or mixed and Indian communities are also more likely than the average for all ethnic groups to be living in the worst standard of housing as measured by the cost of repairs required. These figures are particularly important for those minority ethnic groups occupying

poor quality owner-occupation and lacking the economic resources to modernise or indeed simply keep their properties in good repair. Ratcliffe (1992: 396), like Law (1996: 106-107), notes that areas of minority ethnic residence are attracting public funds for the improvement of private sector housing stock. However, he expresses concern that minority ethnic communities have experienced disproportionate difficulties with delays in obtaining grants, the completion of improvement works and the quality of the workmanship provided. In addition, Law (1996: 107) indicates some concern at the disproportionately low numbers of minority ethnic communities gaining Disabled Facilities Grants. The 1991 Census also includes some measures of housing conditions which indicate that it is Pakistani and Bangladeshi households who are living in the worst housing. For example, they are particularly likely to be in properties without central heating. Owen (1993: 10) concludes that when these outcomes are related to other census data they are indicative of the high representation of Pakistani households in older, relatively poor quality owner-occupied dwellings and the high representation of Bangladeshi households in the poorer quality end of the social rented sector. Minority ethnic communities are generally twice as likely as the majority ethnic community to be without exclusive use of a bath or wc (with the Census categories of Chinese and others and particularly Black African faring badly). Furthermore, minority ethnic communities are almost three times as likely not to be in self-contained accommodation, with Black African and Chinese and others once again faring poorly. However, the greatest divergence in the housing outcomes of the majority and minority ethnic communities can be observed in measures of overcrowding assessed on the basis of number of persons per room: The national average is 2.2 per cent of all households ... [h]owever the figure for ethnic minorities is 13.1 per cent; more than an eighth of all ethnic minority households ... [m]ore than

a fifth of all South Asian households and nearly a tenth of Chinese and other households live at a density of more than one person per room ... [t]his phenomenon is clearly related to household size, but overcrowding amongst the smaller Black households indicates that ability to afford the cost of larger dwellings is also an important influence on the pattern of overcrowding. (Owen 1993: 910) It should be emphasised that whilst South Asian communities, and Bangladeshi communities in particular, contain larger than average household sizes, these snapshots of overcrowding are also a reflection of the housing options which are available to those households. There is some debate as to whether this pattern of overcrowding is likely to change in the future. Harrison et al suggest that the overcrowding of Pakistani and Bangladeshi households is likely to worsen because: the youthful age-structure of these groups and their propensity to live as extended family units (for cultural or economic reasons) ... [means that it is] likely that the living conditions in these households will decline further as the

younger members of the family reach adolescence and have greater space requirements. (Harrison et al. 1996: 61-62) However, these expectations may be affected by the potential for new household formation. Recent research has suggested that there is some indication of a breakdown in the extended family system and a greater tendency for the formation of smaller separate households. Ratcliffe (1996b: 77) argues that one in five of extended families contain people who wish, or need, to form a separate household, although financial considerations may prevent the realisation of these aspirations. Similarly, Law et al. (1996: 3) argue that their case study of Leeds demonstrates the formation of smaller family units amongst minority ethnic communities. These changes may also be accompanied by an increase in demand for the social rented sector, given that the new households might be expected on current trends to have relatively low incomes. These individual studies of housing need are important not only because of their qualitative assessments of housing need, but also because there are limitations to the data within the Census. First, the Census only contains limited measures of household conditions. Hawtin et al. note: the census of population results for households lacking two basic amenities, such as exclusive use of bathroom or WC, are supposed to represent poor housing. But can these data be used to indicate areas of poor quality housing? A condemned tower block with damp, asbestos ridden flats will not show up as poor housing using this indicator if all flats have exclusive facilities. (Hawtin et al. 1994: 66) Similarly, the measure of households which possess central heating does not indicate whether those households have the financial resources to use that heating. Indeed, Ratcliffe (1996b) suggests that many minority ethnic households within Bradford are unable to afford to fully use their central heating systems.

A second limitation of the Census is that it does not produce data on homelessness, although separate studies have indicated that minority ethnic households are over-represented within many categories of homelessness (Law 1996: 98-99). There are also often differences in the experience, as well as in the level, of homelessness. For example, African Caribbean young people are far less likely to be visibly roofless than their counterparts from the majority ethnic group, since they are more likely to resort to taking temporary refuge with others from their own community, despite the level of overcrowding, and are far less likely to take hostel accommodation or to live rough (Baylies et al. 1993). We should also emphasise that the Census represents a record of housing outcomes on Census night, which may include a level of undercounting, particularly in poor inner-city areas (for example as Harrison et al. (1996) note for the African Caribbean community) where minority ethnic communities are disproportionately represented. The Census may also have been overtaken by differential rates of household formation by ethnic group, indicating a growing housing need for a community in a particular area. Ratcliffe (1996a: 8-12) more generally outlines the problems of the ethnic group data from the 1991 Census, noting the inconsistencies which might have arisen in subjective self-classification of ethnicity given the limited number of pre-coded categories. Nevertheless, he concludes that on balance the data are reliable. We should note that social and economic factors such as age, gender and disability will also have an impact on the housing outcomes of ethnic groups. The Sample of Anonymised Records (SARS) available to Harrison et al. (1996: 63) was only sufficient to allow consideration of differential outcomes by sex of head of household for White, Indian and Black Caribbean households. Despite these limitations, Harrison et al. indicated that for each of these ethnic groups, female headed households were more likely to be represented in local authority housing and less likely to be owner-occupiers. (The issue of gender is developed further in the structural influences section below).

Ratcliffe (1996b: ix), with respect to disability issues, argues that minority ethnic households in Bradford demonstrated particularly high levels of long-term illness and impairment and that these levels could be expected to increase given the present young age structure of the community. Indeed, as Atkin and Rollings (1996: 74) note, the predicted steep growth in the numbers of African Caribbean and Asian older people is not only likely to increase the demand for community care, but is also likely to alter the ratio of younger to older people and consequently the potential to arrange informal care. Similarly, the greater number of men in comparison with women within South Asian communities will also affect the scope for informal care if gendered divisions between caring responsibilities are maintained. Atkin and Rollings note that: Bhalla and Blakemore (1981) reported 25 per cent of disabled Asian people and 33 per cent of disabled Afro-Caribbean people experienced housing problems and wanted to move. Farrah (1986) found similar dissatisfaction among older Afro-Caribbean people. Thirty per cent expressed a desire to

move and of these 7 per cent needed single-level accommodation and 12 per cent wanted improved toilet access. (Atkin and Rollings 1996: 81) In practice minority ethnic communities have experienced a number of difficulties in gaining a sensitive assessment of their care needs (Law 1996). This may reflect financial constraints which affect majority white and minority ethnic consumers of community care services. However, studies have appeared to demonstrate particularly low take up rates of social services support amongst minority ethnic communities. For example, Ratcliffe, in his case study of Bradford, notes the low number of people from minority ethnic communities who were making use of support services and gaining property adaptations. These needs were exacerbated by the financial costs of caring (Glendinning 1983) and the severe disruption of family life, which itself was made more difficult by poverty, overcrowding and poor housing conditions (Ratcliffe 1996b: 69). Indeed, Farrah (1986), Gunaratnum (1990) and McCalman (1990) have all identified high levels of housing needs amongst the carers themselves in addition to the consumer of community care. In essence this emphasises that it is family and friends who tend to be the carers of minority ethnic people with impairments, rather than statutory or even voluntary sector agencies, reflecting an emphasis on informal rather than formal care provision (University of Salford 1996a). Law (1996: 142-143) adds, commenting upon the work of Baylies et al. (1993), that there is a belief amongst community organisations that statutory organisations have been slow to develop residential care projects targeted on minority ethnic communities, and that there has also been a frequently expressed, and unfulfilled, demand for supported, independent living amongst minority ethnic communities.

Housing outcomes as an expression of housing choice

It has been noted that the data outlined above have been commonly used to indicate housing need amongst Britains minority ethnic communities. However, it might be suggested that the tendency to equate existing housing conditions with housing need indicates the dominance of normative models of housing need (Bradshaw 1972), assessments which are determined by experts or professionals from the majority ethnic group, rather than by minority ethnic communities themselves. These concerns find practical expression through the work of a number of writers who have argued that the housing outcomes, and more specifically the housing choices of minority ethnic communities, have been devalued because they are not consistent with white value systems. This school of writing disputes the proposition that minority ethnic housing experiences which differ from a white norm, such as concentration in a poor area, greater overcrowding or lack of access to a particular tenure, are necessarily the product of discrimination. Writers from the choice school, such as Davies (1985), suggest that minority ethnic communities have become the objects of study, with their freedom of action and cultural preferences at best undervalued, and at worst ignored. These arguments are typically made with specific regard to the Asian community. Dahya (1974) argues that the Pakistani community in Bradford constructed an ethnic village by segregating itself within specific areas of the city. He suggests that this occurred because of the identification of the community with its Pakistani homeland, precipitating a withdrawal from British culture. Dahya also argues that the Pakistani community had a preference for owner-occupation, even at low physical quality, because of a desire to have a realisable asset at the point of intended return to the homeland. Dahya argues that the alternatives, such as local authority housing, were perceived to represent a non-realisable asset and suggests that the community in his case study had a cultural antipathy to rented housing. Ratcliffe (1981: 189) similarly notes in his study of Handsworth in Birmingham that Asian communities

viewed local authority rented housing in particular in a negative way - as a welfare tenure, and Habeebullah and Slater (1990) have also highlighted the way in which Indian, Pakistani and Chinese households have been deterred from seeking local authority housing by a perception of it as a tenure of last resort. Indeed, Modood (1990: 95) argues that Dahyas premise of Asian housing preference is now a commonplace truth despite being initially received with unease. These arguments raise important concerns for local policy makers and for assessments of local housing need, although it might be suggested that they raise issues for further study, rather than absolute conclusions. For example, it might be questioned whether social sector housing providers should be concerned with targeting rented housing on particular communities if there appears to be an overwhelming preference amongst that community for owneroccupation, or perhaps for a particular geographical location where there is no social housing available and no housing development opportunities to address these issues. However, it might be suggested that even if tenure preferences are real, they may be based upon an erroneous perception of social sector housing, or the barriers to accessing it, which could be broken down to provide a community with an enhanced housing choice. Alternatively, it might be considered that the social rented sector could more effectively meet the housing needs and aspirations of a community by further enabling the development of low cost home ownership initiatives or targeting improvement or disabled facilities grants on a particular community. Robinsons (1980a) study of housing outcomes in Blackburn notes the growing access of some Asian communities to the local authority housing sector, whilst acknowledging the continuing role played by housing choice in those outcomes. He notes that the gradual development of local authority accommodation in areas of Asian residence, coupled with the arrival of East African Asians who did not harbour a desire to return to a homeland, explain the apparent changing tenure preference of the Asian community. More recent research reports have also suggested a

growing demand for social sector housing amongst minority ethnic communities which have been presumed to have an overwhelming preference for owneroccupation. Ratcliffe (1996b: ix-x) identified that in Bradford there was now a significant expectation amongst Asian households that they would need the help of the social rented sector to be able to afford to gain access to bigger properties. He also notes that gaining accommodation in an area containing members of the same ethnic group was a particularly important influence for younger South Asian households, although 70 per cent of South Asian households also saw it as at least fairly important compared with 35 per cent of African Caribbean households. These findings suggest that the concentration and geographical separation of ethnic groups will continue, if not increase. Similarly, the University of Salfords (1996a) housing needs study in Peterborough demonstrated a demand for social rented housing alongside the demand for owner-occupied property, although this was largely confined to existing areas of residence. Housing associations may provide the common factor in these preferences, perhaps due to the size and location of properties, greater speed of access to accommodation for those who are able to access the waiting list and perceived greater sensitivity to specific needs (Bowes, Dar and Sim 1997). Law et al. (1996: 29) not only note a particular demand for housing association property amongst some minority ethnic communities, but also a demand for the sharedownership properties which housing associations commonly provide. However, Law (1996: 85) also argues that the ethnicity of the housing provider is important, suggesting that it is the growth of black and minority ethnic housing associations which has provided an accessible doorway into social housing for minority ethnic communities by challenging community perceptions of housing preference. The housing choice model clearly has methodological significance, asserting the importance of looking beyond the role of societal structure towards the aspirations of the individual in explaining housing outcomes. Nevertheless, there are limitations to the effectiveness of housing choice arguments as full

explanations for the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities. For example, the distinction between choice and constraint is not always clear cut. A decision to concentrate residence in particular areas because of fear of racial attack may superficially appear as an expression of housing choice, when in reality it is a reflection of constraints which could be tackled by local agencies. Indeed, Phillips and Karn (1991: 79) note that the spatial impact of racial attacks upon minority ethnic communities remains a neglected area of research, despite its potential effect upon housing need and the choices available to communities. As Webster (1995) notes, racial harassment has typically reinforced patterns of concentration and segregation between ethnic groups. Voluntary or involuntary geographical concentration may also lead to restricted tenure choices and may shape the standard of accommodation to which a community has access. The opportunities for the public and private sectors to extend the housing opportunities available within these areas will depend on the land bank available, the local authoritys attitude towards its enabling role and the finance available to undertake policy and property development within the private and social rented sectors. We should also note that it is not clear how far the choice paradigm can be applied to a range of minority ethnic communities. This limitation to the comprehensiveness of the choice argument reflects the overwhelming focus of housing choice researchers on Asian communities. Researchers such as Peach (1984), who have studied African Caribbean access to housing, have noted the residential segregation between migrants from particular Caribbean islands within Britain. Indeed, the absence of a common minority ethnic experience of housing outcomes, which has been noted above, might be used as an indicator of the importance of housing choice in shaping those very outcomes, although these differences might also be explained with reference to a number of socioeconomic factors.

Ward (1987: 190) argues that the research undertaken by Dahya (1974) and Davies (1985) should not be used as a base for a widely applied model since they reflect factors specific to a particular community at a particular time which were not mirrored elsewhere and certainly should not be assumed to exist today. Indeed, Dahya expected the experiences of the communities which he studied, which had relatively recently arrived in Britain, to coalesce over time with dominant societal attitudes. Wards viewpoint can be seen as legitimising a greater concentration on the processes through which each community is able to express and satisfy its housing need. These must include studies of discrimination, particularly in the absence of national (and frequently even regional or local) surveys of the housing aspirations of minority ethnic communities.

Housing outcomes constraints

as

an

expression

of

housing

Studies of the housing constraints facing minority ethnic communities may reveal factors which will have an ongoing effect on the expression of housing need because of a communitys expectation of discrimination, in addition to revealing barriers to the satisfaction of housing need at a particular time. As Niner (1987) has noted, minority ethnic communities have used their knowledge of the housing market to apply to particular housing associations which have a track record of housing minority ethnic households. The constraints facing minority ethnic communities in their housing choices can be categorised in three ways, although it should be noted that case studies frequently demonstrate the interaction of these factors. First, there are the actions of individual actors or gatekeepers. Secondly, there are the effects of organisational policies and procedures, including those of the local state, and thirdly there is the structural framework provided or condoned by central government. In each of these three areas it can be argued that discrimination not only occurs through acts of deliberate commission, but also

through acts of omission, which either consciously or unconsciously ignore the social requirements of difference within a particular society. (i) The actions of individual gatekeepers The actions of individual gatekeepers to resources have played a significant part in restricting the housing opportunities available to minority ethnic communities. (See for example CRE 1983, Phillips 1986, Henderson and Karn 1987, Niner 1987, Dalton and Daghlian 1989 and Sarre, Phillips and Skellington 1989, Hickman and Walter 1997). However, this generalisation disguises a variety of processes which range, for example in the social sector, from the deliberate discrimination of the racist officer through to the benevolent, but still discriminatory practices, of the officer seeking to meet housing need. Some of these processes in the social sector may simply be an extension of the distinctions which have historically been made by some housing workers, and indeed their organisations, between those who are deserving of having their housing need recognised by access to a waiting list or by an offer of accommodation, and those that are undeserving of this privilege. There is a wide literature on these practices, (for example Damer 1976 and Gray 1976), which it might be argued is becoming topical again because of the promotion of sensitive allocations (for example Page 1993) to create workable communities on housing estates. Policy initiatives such as the introduction of probationary tenancies and the previous Conservative Governments homelessness review can also be viewed within this historical context. In addition, anecdotal conversations with a number of housing workers from a variety of organisations have suggested the continuing prevalence of not only discretion, but the allocation of resources according to assessments of deserts which are not exclusively related to objective measures of housing need. The importance of these debates for minority ethnic communities is that prejudice can play a part in stereotyping whole communities as deserving or

undeserving of accommodation. The following observation seems to be typical of the everyday way in which housing officers have judged minority households in a number of social housing organisations: Although we were only able to undertake a restricted study of such assessments, on two occasions we found that the decorations of West Indian families were negatively assessed, not because they were soiled or in bad order, but because the colour scheme was bright and gaudy. (Henderson and Karn 1987: 263) In this example, and in other organisations, households were being graded and then matched with an equivalent grade or quality of property. Whilst it has been common to suggest that the discriminatory actions of housing managers result from a lack of professionalism or everyday prejudices (CRE 1983), Sarre, Phillips and Skellington (1989) show that, at least in part, they may also be the result of workplace culture. Indeed, on some occasions they reflect institutional pressure or even institutional policy. Organisational policy might also offer an opportunity space (Tomlins 1997a) for discretion. Niner (1987) draws attention to the flexibility of operation valued by the housing association movement which provides opportunities for individual officers to react sensitively to the housing needs of minority ethnic communities, but also provides opportunities for racism to flourish. It might be suggested that discriminatory assessments of housing need are historic processes which have now been successfully tackled by a greater awareness of equality issues amongst housing organisations. However, the work of Jeffers and Hoggett (1995) is important in demonstrating that discriminatory stereotypes which disadvantage minority ethnic communities continue to exist even amongst organisations with highly developed equality programmes and high numbers of officers from minority ethnic communities. Jeffers and Hoggett highlight the tendency of housing officers to engage in sleuthing

to make a sensitive allocation by matching applicants to particular areas after decoding the information on their application form: The problem was that, although such judgements were made with the best of intentions, the outcome was a tendency to cement applicants to existing areas of domicile - if you lived in a poor area and were made homeless, you were likely to be allocated to that same area on the grounds of minimising disruption to your existing networks. (Jeffers and Hoggett 1995: 338) Despite active programmes of organisational hygiene (Jeffers and Hoggett 1995: 325) to increase formalisation and tackle bias and stereotyping, discretion, albeit within organisational procedures, continued to disadvantage minority ethnic households. Housing officers believed that they had satisfied a housing need through an allocation to a particular area, whilst in fact the preferences of minority ethnic households were less likely to have been met than those of majority ethnic communities. There may be further problems where minority ethnic households seeking housing in the social sector are predominantly dealt with by officers from the majority ethnic community, for example through the stereotyping of living standards noted above. The National Federation of Housing Associations (NFHA 1983), Hajimichael (1988), Harrison (1992a), Misra (1992a) and the CRE (1993a) have all either identified an under-representation of minority ethnic communities throughout all levels of housing association staffing, or at least at senior organisational levels. Bowes and Lemos (1997) have recently drawn attention to the continuation of this situation, and there seems to be little evidence of a significantly different pattern within other housing sectors. However, it should be noted, as Jeffers and Hoggett (1995) demonstrate, that the employment of minority ethnic staff will not in itself ensure equality of housing outcomes where organisational pressures and systems do not allow housing need to be sensitively met.

Ahmad and Atkin (1996: 4) argue that racist attitudes may also affect minority ethnic communities in terms of their access to care services through stereotypical views that black people [are] high risk clients, uncooperative and difficult to work with (Cameron et al. 1989). Therefore, in order to meet housing need, housing providers may not only have to address discriminatory actions within their own organisations, but may also have to compensate for the actions of a range of other housing and care providers. Nevertheless, it should be noted in assessing housing need that intentional and unintentional discrimination against minority ethnic communities is not confined to the social rented sector. For example, minority ethnic communities may continue to experience housing need because of barriers within the owner-occupied market. Morris and Winn (1990) note the way in which the Race Relations Acts have largely eliminated overt racial discrimination in the form of open refusal by estate agents and individual home owners to sell properties to minority ethnic communities, although these examples of past discrimination will have left a legacy of housing need through owner-occupation at the poorer end of the market. Minority ethnic households may also face problems of disrepair within the owner-occupied sector which are difficult to resolve because of the prejudice of individuals within the housing system, lack of finance (Ratcliffe 1996b) and the difficulties which some minority ethnic households face in gaining the satisfactory completion of improvement grant work as a result of the racist attitudes of some builders to minority ethnic residents (Ratcliffe 1992). There have also been widely documented examples of discrimination within the private rented sector, although as in the social rented sector it seems as if the more overt forms of discrimination have generally disappeared. Nevertheless, the CRE (1990a) report Sorry, Its Gone demonstrated that one in five accommodation agencies and one in twenty private landlords and landladies discriminated from a sample based upon thirteen different locations. However, minority ethnic communities do gain access to the private rented sector and Law (1996: 91-92) notes

that minority ethnic landlords play a part in facilitating this process, although it is clear from the Census data that this may be access to poor quality accommodation. (ii) The actions of organisations and the local state A number of the prejudicial actions of individuals have seemed to exist within an organisational structure which implicitly, if not explicitly, sanctions those actions. An extreme example of these practices is provided by the CREs (1983) investigation of Collingwood Housing Association, which suggested that the racism of individual officers had become institutionalised within the organisation. Collingwoods stated allocations criteria involved an assessment of applicants present housing conditions and ... their opportunity to obtain adequate accommodation elsewhere (CRE 1983: 18). However, the importance of the housing need of an individual household was diluted by other considerations. For example, there was an aim to: create a balanced community ... in the case of relets, the needs of the scheme may frequently outweigh the need to take the most urgent cases from the waiting list. (CRE 1983: 18) In practice, this meant imposing quotas on the number of minority ethnic households who could be housed on particular schemes. Whilst the creation of balanced communities is once more being prioritised by social housing providers, the current debate concerning the implementation of sensitive lettings to achieve these results has stressed the importance of aiming to maintain principles of equality of opportunity by ensuring the transparency of the criteria for sensitive lettings and exposing any policy to public scrutiny. This reflects concern lest the organisational distinctions between the deserving and undeserving which have often been racialised including the stigmatisation of travellers (Daly 1990), should again be adopted.

Niner (1987) notes the way in which merit allocations systems in the social housing sector may work against minority ethnic communities, irrespective of a desire to create a balanced community. In the organisations which she studied, although managers tried to be consistent in their decisions, in practice the allocations process relied on comparisons of individual applicants which could only be highly subjective. Although need was one factor considered, Niner (1987: 236) found suitability was another, which included an assessment of willingness to accept the offer. This can lead to the most desperate households being offered the worst housing and can be indirectly discriminatory if minority ethnic households are in the greatest need. As Henderson and Karn have noted with respect to local authorities: Contrary to the publics view, the day-to-day process of allocations in any local authority does not involve finding properties to suit people but rather finding people to suit properties. (Henderson and Karn 1987: 216) This suggests that there may be differing perceptions between providers and consumers concerning whether housing needs are being met. In her case study organisations Niner (1987: 240) found that the discretionary process ... seemed to favour white applicants relative to black through the continued operation of many conscious and unconscious assumptions and pressures. At both associations: The need with a deadline attached was favoured above the chronic need. In my samples it tended to be white applicants who experienced finite need while black applicants were more likely to be living in overcrowded and poor housing, subject to friction and pressure to leave but without a provable ultimatum that they must leave by some fixed date. (Niner 1987: 238) Therefore, individual organisations will be faced with clear difficulties in determining and meeting relative levels of housing need.

However, organisational monitoring can reveal whether communities are using different priority channels to gain access to social housing. The work of Jeffers and Hoggett (1995) highlights the way in which minority ethnic households have been disadvantaged in access to local authority tenancies by their overrepresentation within the homelessness channel. This not only reflects the limited opportunity of homeless households to refuse undesirable offers of accommodation because of the urgency of their housing need, but can also reflect the attitudes of providers to the quality of accommodation which a homeless household deserves in comparison with an applicant with a different housing need. The practices of one organisation can also easily affect the effectiveness of another organisation in meeting housing need. For example, there has appeared to be a lack of concern for the equality of outcomes resulting from the housing nominations process between local authorities and housing associations despite well publicised examples of discrimination in this area (CRE 1989a). The CRE (1993a: 29-32) found that only 35 per cent of associations had written nomination agreements with their local authority housing department, whilst even fewer produced monitoring reports based on the ethnic origin of nominations. There are a host of other relatively common organisational practices which, whilst seemingly objective and impartial, prevent the housing needs of minority ethnic communities from being met in the social housing sector. For example, a refusal by social housing providers to accept waiting-list applications from owner-occupiers, irrespective of the condition of that property and the amount of equity which might be released from its sale, ignores the difficulties of minority ethnic communities living in poor quality owner-occupied property. Other practices which might disguise housing need, or prevent it from being met, include eligibility criteria such as residence qualifications to gain access to accommodation and a failure to advertise available housing services. Dalton and Daghlian (1989: 63) note that West of Scotland Housing

Association had dismissed the idea of advertising its services to minority ethnic communities on the basis that everybody knows us. However, lettings data suggested that this reflected an unwillingness to analyse its own performance, since one third of 132 lettings over nine months in 1987 were made to households with some form of connection with existing residents, who were predominantly from the majority ethnic community. Three of the four housing associations studied by Dalton and Daghlian temporarily closed their waiting lists, providing advantages to applicants who would know when the list would be open. Once again it seemed as if households from the majority ethnic community would benefit because of greater street knowledge of housing opportunities. The CRE (1993a) have also argued that policies of preferential access for daughters and sons of existing tenants will reward kinship rather than housing need, although it has been argued above that there is a growing demand to achieve balanced communities which stresses the importance of family support. Capital investment programmes in the social rented sector have also contributed to the relative housing disadvantage of some groups. This partly reflects the under-representation of particular minority ethnic communities within social rented accommodation, which means that they are less likely to benefit from investment in this sector. However, Law et al. (1996) and Mullings (1992) suggest that minority ethnic communities do not benefit from investment in social sector housing stock even when they are represented within the tenure, because of the large-scale and long term investment needed on many of the estates where minority ethnic communities are concentrated. Indeed, the relatively good quality estates where the majority ethnic community is concentrated appear to have gained disproportionate capital investment because they allow limited sums of capital investment to be spent quickly and achieve visible improvement. It might be argued that minority ethnic which are disproportionately represented owner-occupied sector will benefit availability and delivery of renovation this sector, particularly given the low

communities within the from the grants for quality of

owner-occupation experienced by many households within these communities. However, Ratcliffe notes in his housing needs study of Bradford that: Reported levels of disrepair were extremely high while the ability and expectation of households to rectify defects was low. The prognosis is therefore for further deterioration of the housing stock. (Ratcliffe 1996b: ix) This view may reflect past criticisms of area based initiatives because of the: slow pace of implementation, for the often prohibitive demands which it places on residents and for its tendency to concentrate on cosmetic rather than structural renovations. (Smith 1989: 57) Harrison et al. (1996: 54) add that the work of Ratcliffe (1992) and the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) (1994a) has demonstrated organisational obstacles to minority ethnic communities seeking to gain access to various kinds of housing improvement grants. Indeed, there are continuing instances of organisational barriers in even gaining access to owner-occupation through discrimination by estate agents (CRE 1988a, 1989b). Previously restrictions upon sales were also reinforced by banks and building societies policies of red lining areas where they would not normally grant mortgages. These areas were typically those in which minority ethnic communities were seeking to buy because of the limited choices caused by other discriminatory barriers and lack of capital. Karn, Kemeny and Williams (1985) have demonstrated the ways in which, as a result, minority ethnic communities have incurred high housing costs through having to seek alternative forms of finance, whilst becoming concentrated and to some extent trapped in a residualised sector of the market because of differential rates of house price increases. Other minority ethnic households may have pooled savings in order to avoid borrowing to

purchase, and there is a relatively high level of outright ownership amongst South Asian communities given their age structure, and, therefore, failed to gain the benefits of mortgage interest tax relief. Organisational barriers to meeting the housing needs of minority ethnic communities also exist in the private rented sector. Law (1996: 91-92) notes that high profile private landlords such as the Church Commissioners, the Crown Estates Commissioners and the Duchy of Cornwall have been held to demonstrate quite shocking ignorance and complacency towards anti-racism and equal opportunities (London Against Racism in Housing 1988: 34). Skellington (1996: 140) adds that the London Housing Unit argues that racism in the private rented sector is a major cause of the disproportionate levels of homelessness experienced by minority ethnic communities. This literature review began by suggesting that a consensus position in assessing housing need is represented by the need for adequate protective housing. In this context the existence of racial harassment across all tenures constitutes a housing need, particularly where housing providers are unwilling or unable to tackle that harassment. Social housing providers have been slow to address this issue. Advice provided by the NFHA in 1982 was not only pessimistic regarding the possibility of evicting tenants guilty of racial harassment, but also devalued the housing needs of racially harassed households in comparison with the housing needs of offenders families, even where eviction was not being suggested: Instead of eviction, the offending tenant could be offered a transfer to alternative accommodation elsewhere. However, this can be unsatisfactory as it can punish a whole household where only one member is guilty of harassment. (NFHA 1982: 19) Local authorities also moved from a low base of expertise in tackling racial harassment, and it was only in 1984 that Newham became the first local authority to evict a family for racial harassment

(Skellington 1996: 142). However, whilst there have been further evictions and the introduction of tenancy agreement clauses making racial harassment an evictable offence, it still seems to be more common for the victim of racial harassment to be moved rather than the perpetrator to be evicted (CRE 1993a, Skellington 1996). This preference seems to reflect organisational pressures on staff time and perceived difficulties in successfully undertaking court action. (iii) Structural influences It might be suggested that the failure of successive British governments and local authorities to provide for newly arriving minority ethnic communities, particularly in the post-war period, underlies the housing need which minority ethnic communities experience today. Now that minority ethnic communities have overcome the residence qualifications for social rented housing, they find further barriers. Social sector properties have often not been built in existing areas of minority ethnic residence, the available stock has reduced as a result of right-to-buy policies or it has been built to house nuclear families rather than the extended family structures found in some minority ethnic communities. In essence the social rented sector is most able to meet the housing needs of minority ethnic communities where those needs mirror the housing needs within the majority ethnic community. Similarly Julienne argues that the housing needs of minority ethnic elders have been neglected by the providers of sheltered housing: black and minority ethnic elders ... do not know about these services and where they do, these services are not sensitive to their particular needs. The accommodation is located in an area away from the communities they feel comfortable in, away from shops catering for their needs and places of worship; staff and residents dont understand and are often hostile to their language or customs, diets are not catered for, and publicity about the schemes is targeted in areas

in which they do not live and in a language they cannot read. (Julienne in Jeffery and Seager 1993: viiviii) Majority ethnic and minority ethnic communities have benefited from other areas of national housing policy to different degrees, for example the financial incentives of right-to-buy policies and more generally the promotion of owner-occupation. These policies tend to reward those who are already economically advantaged and have consequently offered disproportionate benefits to the majority ethnic community rather than minority ethnic communities (see for example Ward 1984b, Johnson 1987 and Smith 1989). Indeed, we can see the continuing economic inequalities of minority ethnic communities (Modood 1997, Owen 1997), despite or because of government policies, as being a key part of the structural framework for continuing housing disadvantage. In essence, national housing policy has disadvantaged minority ethnic communities by not taking into account a range of social and economic factors, such as class position and gender inequalities in access to housing, which may affect both majority ethnic and minority ethnic communities, but which may affect the latter to a greater degree. For example, women are generally less well placed to benefit from the promotion of owner-occupation within British housing policy at the expense of other tenures, because of their lower incomes in comparison with men (Gilroy 1994). In addition the responsibilities which women still predominantly face in caring for children and older relatives may require a career break which would make supporting a mortgage problematic. These gender inequalities will also be influenced by ethnicity, since they will disproportionately affect communities which have a high incidence of households without an adult male present. In this context African Caribbean households are disproportionately disadvantaged by gender biased housing policies in comparison with majority ethnic communities in Britain. Minority ethnic women may also, of course, experience disadvantage in relation to culturally insensitive housing provision for women suffering from domestic violence, relationship breakdown and a

host of other factors which they may share with majority ethnic women, but of which they may also have a distinct experience, (see the edited collection of Gilroy and Woods (1994) for a useful overview of these issues). The opportunities to address the housing disadvantage experienced by different groups within society is lessened by the fall in prominence of housing issues in political debate. Political pressures may also have a more direct effect on minority ethnic communities, for example the introduction of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act in 1994 and its removal of the duty on local authorities to provide sites for travellers. Public expenditure on housing has specific effects on particular ethnic communities. The extent to which communities disproportionately benefit from mortgage interest tax relief will depend upon the source of finance for house purchase and will be reduced by attempts to circumvent discrimination through cash purchases of housing, as noted above. Focusing renovation grants upon the inner city has had some benefits for minority ethnic communities, indeed Law (1996) argues that private sector housing renewal is the main source of housing funding from national government for Asian and Chinese communities. However, this remains a relatively small source of public funding in comparison with the public sector capital programmes which these communities have not benefited from in proportion to their representation within the population. Mason (1995: 90) argues more generally that urban policy has not been effectively targeted on the needs of minority ethnic communities despite, or perhaps because of, the way in which minority ethnic communities have been constructed as part of the urban problem. There have been positive governmental initiatives for minority ethnic communities, for example the support for the black and minority ethnic housing movement throughout the late 1980s and the early 1990s. This movement can be seen as a response, originally dating from the 1950s, to the failures of the mainstream social housing movement. For example, the NFHA was still finding distrust in the 1980s amongst minority

ethnic communities mainstream housing housing needs:

concerning the associations to

commitment of meeting their

associations were either irrelevant or actually detrimental to their needs ... the housing associations generally ... thought they were doing a good job for those in the black community ... the black groups thought that housing associations were insensitive to their needs and they had little influence on, and no control over, what housing associations were doing in their area. (NFHA 1983: 13) A study for Scottish Homes (1993) Ethnic Minority Housing consultation paper noted a similar distance between provider and potential consumer, whilst the CRE (1993a: 50) argue that very few housing associations met the Housing Corporations requirement of assessing the needs of minority ethnic households in the planning of new housing development. Schemes designed by and for minority ethnic communities can meet cultural and social needs which would otherwise go unmet by mainstream provision. They highlight housing need amongst minority ethnic communities rather than hiding housing needs which are different from those traditionally found within the majority ethnic community, although it should be noted that housing schemes developed by black and minority ethnic housing associations will typically house residents from the majority ethnic community (Jones 1994) in addition to households from minority ethnic communities. Black and minority ethnic housing associations can also play an important community role which goes beyond simple bricks and mortar housing needs and begins to address the needs which have been articulated as the target of housing plus services. Harrison argues that black and minority ethnic housing associations: may be better at defining community needs than a mainstream white-run organisation is likely to be, they may offer more effective channels for local

participation, they may have special skills and knowledge in terms of tenant management, and they can create opportunities for work experience and training that are much needed. Furthermore, there may be gaps in the provision of social housing which are particularly significant for households in minority ethnic communities, and where a locally-based housing association can take a leading role. (Harrison 1991a: 1) Therefore, black and minority ethnic associations offer the potential not only to develop a more responsive housing provision, but also to increase the involvement of minority ethnic communities within housing provision (Harrison 1992b: 429). Black and minority ethnic associations appear to have performed a complementary role to mainstream organisations, and encouraged them to improve their own race equality performance (Harrison 1992b: 435). Indeed many mainstream housing associations have worked with black and minority ethnic housing associations, often by providing commercial services. It is not clear how extensively black and minority ethnic housing associations will be able to go on meeting the needs of minority ethnic communities. Their difficulties in essence reflect: an inconsistency of official policy ... [o]n the one hand was the desire from the mid-1980s onwards to encourage the emergence of housing organisations more representative of black and minority ethnic communities. On the other hand there was awareness (post-1988) that the new economic climate made viability and potential rent levels more problematic. (Harrison 1992b: 429) The Housing Corporation subsequently ended its strategy of ring-fencing capital funding for the black and minority ethnic housing movement in favour of a looser and less proactive enabling framework, although following the election of the Labour Government a new strategy has now been published (Housing Corporation 1998).

Conclusions The race and housing literature highlights that differences in the housing outcomes of majority and minority ethnic communities remain in British society, although we should note that generalising about the experiences of minority ethnic communities is problematic. The diversity of housing experiences of minority ethnic communities is suggested by households ability to realise their housing preferences. The majority and minority ethnic communities are united in a clear desire for owneroccupied housing (as Lakey 1997 notes, with the exception of the Bangladeshi community), underpinned by an acceptance of the social sector where ownership is financially out of reach. However, owneroccupation rates range from over 80 per cent in the Indian community to only 28 per cent in the Black African community (Ratcliffe 1997a). In addition, we should note that quality of accommodation is important as well as access with, for example, Pakistani and Bangladeshi households occupying relatively poor quality owner-occupied accommodation. The dominant academic approach within the race and housing literature is to talk of minority ethnic communities having housing choice within a structure of constraints which are greater than those which face the majority ethnic community. Indeed, outcomes in the private and public sectors reflect structural weaknesses in British housing policy, for example an insensitivity to difference, which has hindered effective housing provision for minority ethnic communities, alongside economic and indeed political inequalities in British society. This literature review has also demonstrated that minority ethnic households have been affected by organisational and individual actions in the public and private sectors. There does appear to be decreasing overt discrimination, although past discrimination continues to affect current opportunities. At the same time, covert discrimination and unintentional barriers remain more common and have been studied most often in the bureaucratic setting of the social

sector. Indeed, despite the strides towards racial equality in housing which have been made in this sector over the last fifteen years, with housing associations appearing to make greater progress than local authorities (CRE 1993a), there remains a tendency to have paper policies rather than practical action to achieve race equality. Recent literature has emphasised that translating paper equal opportunities policies into practical action is not simply a matter of meeting numerical targets for access to a particular tenure, but also concerns satisfaction with the home and where appropriate the management service provided (Jones 1994). Therefore, as Ratcliffe (1996: 5-6) notes, housing policies should take into account issues of physical and cultural security. They should also incorporate an ethos which values all households as individual consumers rather than treating households as commodities to be processed. This requires national and local housing providers in the private and public sectors to actively ensure that their provision offers a range of housing options to the widest possible community, recognising differential experiences, aspirations and needs within the housing market. The potential to realise these policies is hindered by two things: a relative lack of research that provides a voice for minority ethnic communities to articulate their own needs, despite a recent increase in the studies of housing needs within particular communities; and an overwhelming focus on the actions of social sector housing providers at the expense of the private sector. These weaknesses in the literature must continue to be addressed in order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the housing needs and experiences of minority ethnic communities.

References and Annotated Bibliography Publications referred to by year and letter, for example CRE 1993a, are labelled in this way simply to allow specific publications to be cited, where necessary, within this publication.

Acton, T. (ed.) (1997) Gypsy Politics and Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. Collection of articles including discussion of nomadic life and changes in legislation. Age Concern/Help the Aged Housing Trust (1984) Housing for Ethnic Elders. Mitcham: Age Concern/Help the Aged Housing Trust. One of the early studies to address the housing needs of minority ethnic elders. Highlights that local authorities and housing associations had little conception of the level and type of housing need of minority ethnic elders, accompanied by few policies to meet the housing needs of minority ethnic elders. AGIY (1993) Racial Attacks and Harassment of Irish People. London: Action Group for Irish Youth. As title. Ahmad, W. I. U. and Atkin, K. (1996) Race and Community Care. Buckingham: Open University Press. Makes the link between housing and the care literature. Akhtar, J. (ed.) (1996) Pakistanis in Britain the 1990s and Beyond: conference report. Birmingham: Pakistan Forum. Includes material on housing and also on racial harassment. Al-Rasheed, M. (1996) The Other-Others: Hidden Arabs? In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 206-220. Covers the geographical distribution and housing characteristics of minority ethnic communities.

Alasow, M. A.; Robie, M. J.; Wayland, C. (1993) A Survey of the Somali Community in Liverpool: an in depth analysis. Liverpool: Granby Toxteth Community Project. Includes reference to housing outcomes, including inability to afford adequate heating. The results are based on a survey of 1067 individuals noting that only 6 per cent of Somali households resided in owner-occupied accommodation. Amin, K. with Oppenheim, C. (1992) Poverty in Black and White: deprivation and ethnic minorities. London: CPAG and the Runnymede Trust. Includes sections on housing and health, and spatial patterns. Amin, K. and Richardson, R. (1994) Multi-Ethnic Britain: facts and trends. London: Runnymede Trust. Useful overview of the position of minority ethnic communities in Britain, including a spatial map. An Teach (1996) Housing Young Irish People in London. London: An Teach Irish Housing Association. As title. Anderson, I., Kemp, P. and Quilgars, D. (1993) Single Homeless People. London: HMSO. Highlights the hidden nature of much homelessness amongst minority ethnic communities. Includes reference to minority ethnic households noting disproportionate levels of residence in temporary accommodation, particularly for minority ethnic women. The report also shows relatively high levels of homelessness amongst single women from minority ethnic communities. Anwar, M. (1979) The Myth of Return: Pakistanis in Britain. London: Heinemann. Case study of Rochdale including some reference to housing issues. Anwar, M. (1996) British Pakistanis: demographic, social and economic position. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Chapter on housing issues, focusing in particular upon Birmingham.

Anwar, M. (1998) Between Cultures: continuity and change in the lives of young Asians. London: Routledge. Includes chapters on housing and racial harassment. Outlines the housing outcomes of Asian communities, arguing that community facilities and fear of racial harassment lead to spatial concentration, although the desire to live in Asian areas appeared to be less strong amongst the younger community. ASHRA(M) Research Team (nd) A change of culture?: a qualitative research into the housing needs of Asian elders in Birmingham. Birmingham: ASHRA(M). Highlights a lack of knowledge concerning sheltered housing despite a need for this type of accommodation. The report also notes a demand for schemes specifically targeted upon minority ethnic communities and the availability of emergency call systems in Asian languages. Asian Special Housing Initiative Agency (1990) The Evidence - Survey of the Asian Communitys Housing Needs. Rochdale: ASHIA. Examines experiences in Rochdale. The community was disproportionately concentrated in the private sector, often in poor quality accommodation. However, there was little opportunity to move to newly built accommodation within existing areas of residence. The report notes the Asian communitys experience of racial harassment on local authority estates and support for the idea of an Asian housing association. Asian Special Housing Initiative Agency and Age Concern (1991) Time for Action: consultation document on needs of Asian elders. Rochdale: ASHIA/Age Concern. Includes a focus upon the barriers facing minority ethnic elders wishing to access sheltered housing. Association of Metropolitan Authorities (AMA) (1985) Housing and Race: policy and practice in local authorities. London: AMA. Despite noting some areas of improvement, this report demonstrates continuing shortfalls in the race equality performance of the housing departments studied.

Atkins, J., Barelli, J., Jarvis, C., Levison, D. and Bowes, E. (1998) Assessing Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Needs. London: Housing Corporation. The report emphasises that the housing needs of black and minority ethnic communities may differ from the majority white community requiring a more sensitive approach to housing needs assessment. Atkin, K. and Rollings, J. (1993) Community Care in a Multi-Racial Britain: a critical review of the literature. London: HMSO. As title. Atkin, K. and Rollings, J. (1996) Looking after their own?: family care-giving among Asian and AfroCaribbean communities. In W. Ahmad and K. Atkin (eds.), Race and Community Care. Buckingham: Open University Press, 73-86. An example of care issues in relation to housing. Aurora, G. (1967) The New Frontiersmen: a sociological study of Indian immigrants in the UK. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Based on research undertaken in the late 1950s and including some reference to housing. Aye-Maung, N. and Mirrlees-Black, C. (1994) Racially Motivated Crime: a British Crime Survey analysis. Home Office Research and Planning Unit Paper 82. London: Home Office. As title. Baboolal, E. (1981) Black residential distribution in south London. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 59-79. Argues that the literature has shown insufficient attention to studies of residential distribution at enumeration district level. Highlights the way in which the distribution of the minority ethnic community in South London closely maps the areas of poorest quality housing. More generally, Baboolal argues that researchers should pay greater attention to the role of urban structure in shaping residential outcomes.

Back, L. (1996) New Ethnicities and Urban Culture: racisms and multiculture in young lives. London: UCL Press. Not explicitly about housing, but includes an important discussion of the meaning of community and the racialisation of the housing allocations process. Bacon, N., Barelli, J. and Levison, D. (1998) Race Equality in Access to Housing Services: a good practice guide. London: National Housing Federation. Includes a discussion of the housing needs of minority ethnic communities, assessing the housing needs of minority ethnic communities working with black and minority ethnic housing associations, access to housing and the provision of the housing service. Bagchi, A. (1994) Housing Needs Survey of the Ethnic Minorities in the Medway Rochester Towns. London: Presentation Housing Association. Local needs study. Bagilhole, B. (1997) Equal Opportunities and Social Policy. London: Longman. Includes a chapter providing a useful introduction to the race and housing literature. Bagley, C. (1973) The Dutch Plural Society: a comparative study in race relations. London: Institute of Race Relations. Includes reference to housing issues in Britain. Bailey, N., Bowes, A. and Sim, D. (1995) Pakistanis in Scotland: census data and research issues. Scottish Geographical Magazine, 111(1), 36-45. Demonstrating the need for further research on the Pakistani community in Scotland. Bailey, N., Bowes, A. and Sim, D. (1997) The demography of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 16-34. Including discussion of housing position.

Baker, G. (1995) Gypsy law. Journal of Planning and Environment Law, 191-196. Discusses the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 which made the local authority duty to provide sites for travellers discretionary and withdrew the capital grant which enabled local authorities to provide sites. The article notes that local authorities were expected instead to facilitate private sector provision of sites. Ballard, R. (1996) The Pakistanis: stability and introspection. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 121-149. Discusses spatial and housing issues. The chapter highlights the relatively high levels of owneroccupation within the Pakistani community and the relative importance of choice and constraint in leading to those outcomes. Ballard, R. and Ballard, C. (1977) The Sikhs: the development of South Asian settlements in Britain. In J. Watson (ed.), Between Two Cultures: migrants and minorities in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell, 21-56. Includes discussion of the chronology of settlement and reference to Asian preference for owneroccupation. Ballard and Ballard observe a gradual move to the suburbs amongst the Sikh community, but argue that the resource of ethnicity was preserved during this process due to the strength of existing social networks. The chapter emphasises the importance of examining the positive housing choices made by minority ethnic communities, although Ballard and Ballard argue that these should be viewed within a context of the constraints facing them. Banton, M. (1955) The Coloured Quarter. London: Jonathan Cape. Includes one of the earlier accounts of the post-war housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Banton, M. (1979) Two theories of racial discrimination in housing. Ethnic and Racial Studies, II(4), 1979, 416-427. Banton discusses the usefulness of the ecological theory, which he argues forms a part of Rex and Moores (1967 below) work, and rational choice theory

in explaining the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities. He argues that general theories focused on the experience of minority ethnic communities offer a more productive avenue for theoretical and policy advancement than specific concepts such as discrimination. Banton, M. (1983) Racial and Ethnic Competition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes an examination of race and the housing market in Britain with reference to ecological theory and rational choice theory. Banton, M. (1994) Discrimination. Buckingham: Open University Press. Small section on housing in useful wider study of discrimination. Barclay, C. (1994) Policy on Gypsies in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill. House of Commons Library Research Paper, 94/3, 1-14. Useful source of statistics and outline of government policy in the early 1990s. Barclay, C. (1994) Policy on Gypsies in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill. House of Commons Library Research Paper, 94/17, 1-15. Update of above. Barnett, A. S., Pickvance, C. G. and Ward, R. H. (1970) Some factors underlying racial discrimination in housing: a preliminary report on Manchester. Race, XII(1) 75-86. As title.

Baylies, C., Law, I. and Mercer, G. (eds.) (1993) The nature of care in a multi-racial community: summary report of an investigation of the support for black and minority ethnic persons after discharge from psychiatric hospitals in Bradford and Leeds. Social Policy and Sociology Research Working Paper 8. Leeds: University of Leeds. Notes the different strategies employed by minority ethnic groups to cope with homelessness. Bell, A. (ed.) (1991) Aspects of Racism in Scotland Information and Sources. Edinburgh: Moray House Publications. Collection of articles with some reference to housing. Bell, J. and Clinton, C. (1993) The Unheard Community: a look at the housing conditions and needs of refugees from Vietnam living in London. Derby: Refugee Action. Research conducted for a conference which aimed to contribute to the improvement of the housing conditions of the London Vietnamese community. The report highlights the concentration of Vietnamese households in local authority, often poor quality, accommodation. Detailed case studies are provided of the London Boroughs of Greenwich and Southwark. Bell, W. S. (1988) Put in Your Place: race and council housing in Enfield. London: London Borough of Enfield Community Relations Council. Report stimulated by the local authoritys refusal to conduct ethnic monitoring of service delivery at a time of increasing housing stress within the borough. Minority ethnic households appeared to be disproportionately allocated tenancies of short-life properties, tower blocks and problem estates. They also appeared to wait longer for their housing and experienced unresponsiveness from housing managers when there were language difficulties and/or experience of racial harassment. The report includes recommendations for future practice. Bennett, C. (1991) The Housing of the Irish in London: a literature review. PNL Irish Studies Centre Occasional Papers Series 3. London: PNL As title.

Ben-Tovim, G., Gabriel, J., Law, I. and Stredder, K. (1986) The Local Politics of Race. London: Macmillan. Includes brief reference to housing issues. Bhalla, A. and Blakemore, K. (1981) Elderly of the Minority Ethnic Groups. Birmingham: All Faiths for One Race. Remains a useful reference to the extent of housing need. Birmingham City Council (1993) Housing Needs of Black Elders: report of the One Day Seminar held on 28th July 1993. Birmingham: Birmingham City Council. Highlights an area of need often neglected by housing providers.

Birtill, A. (1995) Rights for Travellers. London: London Irish Womens Centre. Emphasises the particularly disadvantaged position of travellers and the lack of information regarding their needs. The report also highlights the importance of consultation with traveller communities, the provision of adequate permanent and temporary sites and equal access to permanent accommodation. Blakemore, K. and Boneham, M. (1994) Age, Race and Ethnicity. Buckingham: Open University Press. Only addresses housing in passing, but begins to unravel the issues concerning the housing needs of minority ethnic elders. Blanc, M. (1992) From substandard housing to devalorized social housing: ethnic minorities in France, Germany and the UK. European Journal of Intercultural Studies, 3(1), 7-25. Focusing upon ethnicity, poverty and citizenship, and the role of housing. The article includes a discussion of legal provisions, race awareness training and monitoring provision. Blanc notes the way in which the devalorisation of social sector housing contributes to social exclusion. Blauw, W. (1991) Conclusion. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 391-402. This chapter suggests that spatial segregation should be considered a social problem. Whilst Blauw notes that Western Europe does not display American style segregation, he argues that the extent and processes of discrimination in Europe should be revealed to ensure that the American picture is not realised. Boal, F. (1976) Ethnic residential segregation. In D. T. Herbert and R. J. Johnston (eds.), Social Areas in Cities Vol. 1. Chichester: John Wiley, 41-79. Study of spatial segregation including references to Britain. Boatemath, D. (1996) Angell Town Community Project. In Directorate of Social and Economic Affairs (eds.),

Area Based Projects in Districts of High Immigrant Concentration. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 39-47. Short account of initiatives to improve the built environment on a stigmatised estate in Brixton where the majority of properties are occupied by minority ethnic households. Bonnerjea, L. and Lawton, J. (1987) Homelessness in Brent. London: Policy Studies Institute. Notes that seven out of ten homeless households in Brent are from minority ethnic communities and argues that the social housing sector has not met the needs of a multi-racial society. The report suggests that whilst a number of the problems leading to homelessness were also faced by the majority ethnic community, there were also specific problems facing minority ethnic communities. These included the need to attend to crises outside Britain, leading to bureaucratic action against unoccupied properties and the loss of residence qualifications for the housing waiting list. Minority ethnic communities were also less likely to benefit from the discretion available to housing officers to help deserving cases. A series of recommendations for best practice are made. Bonnerjea, L. and Lawton, J. (1988) No Racial Harassment this Week: a study undertaken in the London Borough of Brent. PSI Occasional Paper 41. London: Policy Studies Institute. Study of racial harassment in Brent, highlighting the problems caused by a policy which takes little action against the perpetrators of racial harassment and transfers the victims of harassment from the area of harassment. Nine areas of policy and practice are identified as requiring review: publicity; assessment; victim support from housing officers; victim support from community groups; victim support from caretakers; action against perpetrators; coordination of policy at district offices; general community development and community development with young people. Bowes, A., Dar, N. and Sim, D. (1997) Tenure preferences and housing strategy: an exploration of Pakistani experiences. Housing Studies, 12(1), 63-84. As title.

Bowes, A., Dar, N. and Sim, D. (1997) Pakistanis and social rented housing: a study in Glasgow. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 35-50. Draws upon interviews which demonstrate that minority ethnic groups lack knowledge of the housing allocations process, are dissatisfied with the bureaucracy of the housing department and the size of available dwellings and fear racial harassment on council estates. The work of housing associations is also viewed unfavourably by the minority ethnic communities within the study. Bowes, A., Dar, N. and Sim, D. (1997) Too White, Too Rough, and Too Many Problems: a study of Pakistani housing in Britain. Research Report No. 3. Stirling: Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stirling. Study of housing preferences and strategies amongst the Pakistani communities in Bradford, Glasgow and Luton drawing attention to the continuing tenure dominance of owner-occupation for these communities, albeit often at poor quality and with decreasing access to improvement grants. The report notes that size and location of property appeared to be the main influences upon housing choice. Local authority estates were not valued highly as a housing option, although greater interest was expressed where they were perceived to be safe from racial harassment. Housing associations were viewed more favourably because of the proximity of their properties to areas of existing minority ethnic residence, speed of allocations and sensitivity to specific community needs. The continuing preferences of the communities for owner-occupation reflected a perception of the greater benefits and choices provided by this tenure. Bowes, A., Dar, N. and Sim, D. Housing Strategies in Britain. Foundation Findings 118. York: Foundation. Summary of publication above.

(1998) Pakistani Joseph Rowntree Joseph Rowntree

Bowes, A. M., McCluskey, J. and Sim, D. (1990) Racism and harassment of Asians in Glasgow. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 13(1), 71-91. Suggests that the term racist harassment is more useful than racial harassment in reflecting the power relationship between harassers from the majority ethnic community and the minority ethnic households who are harassed. The authors case study of Glasgow demonstrated a lack of confidence amongst harassment victims in agencies which might deal with a complaint, such as the police or housing department. It suggests the existence of institutional racism within the local authority housing department and also contains a discussion of the origins of antiIrish racism in Scotland Bowes, A. M., McCluskey, J. and Sim, D. (1990) Ethnic minorities and council housing in Glasgow. New Community, 16(4), 523-532. The article notes the concentration of minority ethnic households in the relatively poorer parts of the owner-occupied sector in Glasgow. However, it is suggested that this, at least in part, reflects constraints in access to local authority accommodation. Despite some increase in applications there remained a lack of knowledge concerning the local authority sector amongst minority ethnic households. Bowes, A. and Sim, D. (eds.) (1997) Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate. Edited collection including a strong housing element. Bowes, A. and Sim, D. (1997) The changing policy context. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1-15. Outlines the context for the issues addressed in the book including race and housing. Bowes, A. and Sim, D. (1997) Conclusion: minority ethnic groups and health and social care. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland.

Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 203-215. Draws attention to under-researched areas, the need to develop policy further and the need to track the housing strategies of minority ethnic communities. Bowes, E. (1998) A Way from Home. London: Labo Housing Association. Focusing on the housing and care needs of minority ethnic elders in Tower Hamlets. Bowes, E. and Lemos, G. (1997) Reaching the Top. London: Lemos and Crane. Focuses upon the characteristics required by a small group of large mainstream housing associations for the recruitment of senior managers. Bowes and Lemos argue that minority ethnic communities are disadvantaged in access to top jobs by the emphasis upon proven track record rather than potential and also by the subjective consideration of ability to fit in. Bowman, A. (1993) Black housing associations strategy - the next five years. Housing Review, 42(3), 47. Emphasises the need for a strong lead from statutory and representative bodies to ensure the health of the black and minority ethnic housing association movement. Bowman, A. (1993) Implementing equal opportunities the next stage. Housing Review, 42(3), 47. Short article arguing, rather optimistically, that implementing equal opportunities is now about how to do it rather than whether to do it. Bradshaw, J. (1972) The concept of social need. New Society, 30/3, 640-643. Cited in the literature review to highlight the norms typically involved in discussion of housing need. Brandon, D. (1973) Not Proven: some questions about homelessness and young immigrants. London: Runnymede Trust. Argues that there was little evidence to suggest that minority ethnic communities were experiencing high levels of homelessness. Whilst the author suggests that there is a need for further information, he is

heavily criticised in a dissenting note at the end of the pamphlet for concentrating his research on traditional patterns of homelessness, rather than examining the different experiences of minority ethnic communities. Bridges, L. (1982) Review of C. Peach et al (eds.) Ethnic Segregation in Cities and P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.) Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. Race and Class, 21, 331-352. As title. Bridges, L. (1988) Racism in Camden Housing: report of the Housing Investigation Advisory Panel. London: London Borough of Camden. Assessment of the housing policies and practices of the London Borough of Camden. The report includes sections on racism and the crisis of homelessness in Camden, combating racial harassment in housing, and community participation. Bridges notes the high degree of officer discretion involved in making allocations and the frequent interventions by senior managers and councillors in the allocation process. The report highlights the important roles played by households street knowledge and officer advocacy in the satisfaction of housing need and suggests that minority ethnic households appeared to be targeted for particular vacancies. Bridges notes, in addition, that there was a lack of practical priority provided to racial harassment cases and draws attention to the racism facing some minority ethnic households placed in bed and breakfast accommodation. Bridges, L. and Forbes, D. (1990) Making the Law Work Against Racial Harassment. London: Legal Action Group. As title.

Bristow, M. (1976) Britains response to the Uganda Asians crisis: government myths versus political and resettlement realities. New Community, V(3), 265-279. Suggests that the governmental policy of dispersing Ugandan Asians to prevent spatial concentration was largely a sham to appease domestic and international public opinion. Bristow, M. and Adams, B. N. (1977/78) Ugandan Asians and the Housing Market in Britain. New Community, IV(1 and 2), 65-77. Notes that the absence of alternative accommodation, in addition to the pull of established communities, encouraged Ugandan Asians to settle in areas of existing Asian residence in Britain. Bristow, M. (1979) Ugandan Asians: racial disadvantage and housing markets in Manchester and Birmingham. New Community, VII(2), 203-216. Compares the experiences of Ugandan Asians in Manchester and Birmingham. In Manchester housing advice was provided by the local Community Relations Council and accommodation by the local authority and local housing associations. In Birmingham no social sector housing provision was made. The article also suggests that these varying housing experiences may have an impact on economic outcomes. Bristow, M. (1982) Britains response to the Ugandan Asian crisis: government myth versus political and resettlement realties. In J. Solomos (ed.), Migrant Workers in Metropolitan Cities. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation, 77-99. Bristow discusses the governments attempts to disperse the Ugandan Asian community away from existing areas of Asian residence within Britain. He highlights the practical necessity of households securing their own housing solutions partly as a result of the slow response of official agencies. Brooks, D. (1980) Tales of two cities: colonial immigrants in Birmingham - and Bradford (a review article). New Community, 8(1/2), 154-161. Includes discussion of Rex and Tomlinson (1979 below) and, therefore, the housing class thesis.

Brooks, J. (1993) Gypsies and travellers alternative policies. Housing and Planning Review, 48(3), 16-17. Suggests alternatives to the reforms proposed by the government at that time to the Caravan Sites Act 1968. Brown, C. (1984) Black and White Britain: the Third PSI Survey. London: Heinemann. Following Daniel (1968) and Smith (1977) this represents the results of the third PEP/PSI survey outlining the extent of disadvantage faced by minority ethnic communities in Britain, including data on housing. The report draws attention to the way in which Asian and African Caribbean outcomes vary not only from those of the white community, but also from each other in terms of property tenure, type, size and quality. Nevertheless, it is emphasised that the quality of housing experienced by minority ethnic communities was disproportionately poor. Brown, H., Morris, J. and Gunning, K. (nd) Housing Needs in Sparkbrook: a report prepared for Birmingham Friendship Housing Association. Birmingham: Birmingham Polytechnic. Discusses the housing needs of minority ethnic households within the context of a larger report. Brown, J. (1970) The Unmelting Pot: an English town and its immigrants. London: Macmillan. Focusing on Bedford and including a section on housing which concentrates on levels of overcrowding within the private rented sector and the need to coordinate housing services with other social service areas. Brown, K. R. (1981) Race, class and culture: towards a theorization of the choice/constraint concept. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 185203. Outlines the work of the Chicago School and the continuing tendency to try and assess segregation within a discussion of the importance of either choice or constraint. Browns substantive point is that greater attention should be paid to economic factors through a Marxist analysis.

Brown, T. and Passmore, J. (1995) Minority Ethnic Communities Access to Shared Ownership Housing. Sevenoaks: Moat Housing Group. A short research report identifying that shared ownership housing has potential for meeting the housing needs of minority ethnic communities. Includes case studies of Leicester and North West Kent. Bulmer, M. (1996) The ethnic group question in the 1991 Census of population. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 33-62. Useful discussion of language from the Census. Burney, E. (1967) Housing on Trial: a study of immigrants and local government. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations. Classic study focusing on the concentration of minority ethnic communities in poor quality private rented accommodation, the drive to obtain owneroccupation and the attitudes faced by minority ethnic households. Burney discusses the barriers to local authority accommodation, including the application of slum clearance policies and the role of the housing visitor. She emphasises the need for ethnic monitoring and holds some optimism for a reduction in discrimination in the future. Burney, E. (1971) Immigrant housing in Britain. New Community, 1(1), 80-82. Short review of outcomes in the housing market. Burney, E. (1972) Housing: new directions. New Community, 1(2), 155-157. Discussion of the Housing Finance Bill at committee stage in Parliament. Some discussion of the dispersal versus concentration debate is included. Burney, E. (1972) Housing: new directions. New Community, 1(3), 226-230. Examination of three housing cases brought under the 1968 Race Relations Act and the more general effectiveness of the Act. The article also contains an update on the Housing Finance Bill, discussion of

Davies (1972 below) The Evangelistic Bureaucrat and the issue of dispersal. Burrows, R. (1997) The social distribution of the experience of homelessness. In R. Burrows, N. Pleace, and D. Quilgars (eds.), Homelessness and Social Policy. London: Routledge, 50-68. As title. Byron, M. (1994) Post-war Caribbean Migration to Britain: the unfinished cycle. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Avebury. Includes discussion of housing market experiences using a choice and constraint framework and leading to an endorsement of the explanatory potential of structuration theory. Byron includes a case study of Leicester which highlights the importance of social networks in obtaining accommodation, although it is suggested that there was little preference per se for living close to migrants originating from the same Caribbean island. Campbell, J. (1987) Housing - a partnership. In CRE (eds.), The Needs of the Chinese Community in the North West. London: CRE, 62-67. Notes housing outcomes including the language difficulties faced by Chinese communities and the need for housing providers to establish dialogue with the Chinese community in order to resolve housing needs. Campbell, J. and Pomeyie, J. (1988) Racial attacks and harassment. In M. Maguire and J. Pointing (eds.), Victims of Crimes: a new deal. Buckingham: Open University Press. As title. Cannon, J. and The Travellers of Thistlebrook (1989) Travellers: an introduction. London: Emergency Exit Arts/InterChange Books. Focuses on an official travellers site in East London. Carey-Wood, J., Duke, K., Karn, V. and Marshall, T. (1994) The Settlement of Refugees in Britain. London: Home Office. As title.

Cara Irish Housing Association (1994) Monitoring of Irish Applicants for Housing: a survey of London Boroughs. London: Cara Irish Housing Association. Notes that there were continuing weaknesses in the extent and quality of monitoring of applications for housing from the Irish community. The report stresses that specialist organisations are crucial in meeting the unmet needs of the Irish community.

Carey, S. and Shukur, A. (1985) A profile of the Bangladeshi community in East London. New Community, XII(3), 405-417. Carey and Shukur plot the spatial patterns of the Bangladeshi community in Tower Hamlets, drawing attention to relatively high rates of public renting in comparison with other Asian communities nationally. They suggest that this reflects the high levels of social rented stock in the boroughs and the fear of the likelihood of racial harassment in the local owner-occupied sector. Carlin, H. (1994) The Housing Needs of Older People from Ethnic Minorities: evidence from Glasgow. Occasional Papers on Housing No. 6. Stirling: Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stirling. Survey of housing providers and minority ethnic elders. See Carlin 1997 below. Carlin, H. (1997) The housing needs of older people from minority ethnic groups. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 67-82. Includes a review of the existing literature around the housing needs of elders from minority ethnic communities. Carlins survey of Glasgow draws attention to the lack of access of minority ethnic households to social sector accommodation, the lack of sensitivity amongst housing providers to specific minority ethnic needs and a lack of detailed knowledge of sheltered housing amongst minority ethnic communities. Carr, M. and Lavery, E. (1996) Irish Travellers in Temporary and Permanent Accommodation in Brent and Harrow. London: Carr and Lavery. Highlights the difficult access to travellers sites faced by Irish travellers. Cashmore, E. (ed.) (1996) Dictionary Ethnic Relations. London: Routledge. Brief reference to housing issues.

of

Race

and

Cater, J. (1981) The impact of Asian estate agents on patterns of ethnic residence: a case study of

Bradford. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 163-183. Notes the limited area of operation of Asian estate agents and that Asian households tended to purchase the cheapest property available. Cater highlights the continuing difficulties of the Asian communities in gaining mortgage finance for inner city properties whilst drawing attention to increasing, albeit still relatively small scale, access to the local authority rented sector. More substantively he discusses the changes in the housing attitudes of the Asian community since Dahyas (1974) work, and also the limits to the application of Robinsons (1979a) work due to the diversity of settlement centres. Cater demonstrates that constraints continue to face Asian households wishing to fully participate in the housing market. Cater, J. and Jones, T. R. (1978) Asians in Bradford. New Society, 13, April, 81-82. As title. Cater, J. and Jones, T. R. (1979) Ethnic residential space: the case of Asians in Bradford. Journal of Economic and Social Geography, 70(2), 86-97. As title. Cater, J. and Jones, T. R. (1987) South Asian ethnicity, home ownership and social reproduction. In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism. London: Allen and Unwin, 191-211. Examines issues of ethnicity and housing outcomes within a context of class relations. Cater and Jones emphasise the disadvantaged sector of owneroccupation generally accessed by Asian households. Cater, J., Jones, T. R. and McEvoy, D. (1977) Ethnic segregation in British cities. Annals, Association of American Geographers, 67, 305-306. As title. Central Housing Advisory Committee (1969) Report on Council Housing: purposes, procedures and priorities. London: HMSO. Often referred to as the Cullingworth Report and widely seen as the first official recognition of the

benefits gained by minority ethnic communities from spatial concentration. Dispersal policies were supported only where they were the preference of minority ethnic communities in the area. The Report also supports the introduction of ethnic monitoring. Champion, T. (1996) Internal migration and ethnicity in Britain. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 135-173. Analyses minority ethnic communities migration patterns in the 1991 Census and adds to the view that minority ethnic communities were generally moving to areas of existing minority ethnic residence. Champion suggests that the suburbanisation of minority ethnic communities tended to occur over shorter distances than the moves of the majority ethnic community. Chance, J. (1996) The Irish: invisible settlers. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 221-239. Includes consideration of housing issues. Chandran, K. (1993) Presentation Housing Association - the next five years. Housing Review, 42(3), 46-47. Outlines the expectations of a leading black and minority ethnic housing association. Charlesworth, J. (1991) The Extent and Effectiveness of Contract Compliance for Racial Equality in Local Authorities. Canterbury: University of Kent. As title.

Charlesworth, J. (1998) BME Housing Policy - CRE response. Black Housing, July/September, 22. Response to the new Housing Corporation Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Policy (Housing Corporation 1998 below). Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (1995) Travellers and Gypsies: an alternative strategy. London: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health. Includes practical advice emphasising the need for communication between local authorities and travellers and includes a section on the lifestyle and background of travellers. Chartered Institute of Housing (1993) The Housing Management Standards Manual. Volume Two. Coventry: Chartered Institute of Housing. Guidance manual of the professional organisation for housing managers which includes coverage of equality issues. Chartered Institute of Housing (1995) Neighbour Nuisance: ending the nightmare. Good Practice Briefing Issue 3. Coventry: Chartered Institute of Housing. Includes definition and good practice around harassment issues. Cheng, Y. (1996) The Chinese: upwardly mobile. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 161-180. Highlights the relatively high representation of the community in private rented accommodation. Clapham, D., Kemp, P. and Smith, S. J. (1990) Housing and Social Policy. London: Macmillan. Includes a small race section. Clark, C. (1997) "New Age" Travellers: identity, sedentarism and social security. In T. Acton (ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, 125-141. Discussion of lifestyle and benefit take up. Clark, D. (1976) Factors and Policies which Determine the Housing Market in Respect of Immigrants in

Britain. Working Paper 40. Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Regional Studies: University of Birmingham. Examines access and quality issues and the respective roles played by choice and constraint in housing outcomes. Clark, D. (1977) Immigrant Responses to the British Housing Market: a case study in the West Midlands conurbation. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 7. Birmingham: Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title.

Clarke, C., Peach, C. and Vertovec, S. (eds.) (1990) South Asians Overseas: migration and ethnicity. Comparative Ethnic and Race Relations Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edited collection with passing reference to housing. Clarke, S. E. (1976) Urban ethnic conflict: selected theoretical approaches. In S. E. Clarke and J. L. Obler (eds.), Urban Ethnic Conflict: a comparative perspective. Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Carolina, 205257. Includes discussion of the work of Dahya (1974 below) and Rex and Moore (1967 below). Clarke, V. (1989) Bleak prospects for black tenants. Housing Review, 38(5), 128-129. Notes the housing position of minority ethnic communities and argues that privatisation policies pursued by central government since the 1980s had exacerbated the housing stress experienced. Clarke supports his argument by highlighting the small proportion of right to buy sales being made to black tenants in the London Borough of Brent. He also draws attention to the rent pressures facing housing associations as a result of the introduction of private finance and the effects upon tenants and black and minority ethnic housing associations. Amongst other points Clarke argues that there is a danger that minority ethnic communities are being forced to return to the discrimination faced in the private sector in the 1950s and 1960s. Clarke, V. (1994) Getting Black Tenants Involved: a good practice guide for housing associations and cooperatives. London: CATCH. Outlines best practice, including examples from case studies, for the involvement of minority ethnic tenants in tenant participation processes. Clements, L. and Campbell, S. (1997) The Criminal Justice and Public-Order Act and its implications for travellers. In T. Acton (ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, 61-69. Includes reference to the first legal test to the new powers.

Cohen, A. (ed.) (1974) Urban Ethnicity. A.S.A. Monographs No. 12. London: Tavistock. Edited collection including Dahya (1974 below). Cohen, G. (1984/5) Ethnicity in a middle-class London suburb. New Community, XII(1), 89-100. Focuses on the resource of ethnicity. Cohen, P. (1993) Home Rules: some reflections on racism and nationalism in everyday life. Essex: The New Ethnicities Unit, University of East London. Wide ranging essay predominantly addressing general issues of racism, ethnicity and nationalism, but also locating some of them with reference to the physical home. Coleman, D. and Salt, J. (1992) The British Population: patterns, trends and processes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Predominantly spatial mapping and demographic trends. Coleman, D. and Salt, J. (eds.) (1996) Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO. Edited volume containing background information to housing issues, for example around household structure. Individual chapters referred to below. Coleman, D. and Salt, J. (1996) The ethnic group question in the 1991 Census: a new landmark in British social statistics. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 1-32. Outlines the development of the Census question and notes other recording systems. Collard, D. (1972) Pride, Prejudice and Exclusion in the Housing Market. Discussion Paper in Economics Number 43. Bristol: Department of Economics and SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations, University of Bristol. Includes two papers. The first uses supply and demand analysis to demonstrate that minority ethnic households are not associated with falls in house

prices. The second paper examines the role of estate agents as gatekeepers to the owner-occupied market. Collard, D. (1973) Exclusion by estate agents: an analysis. Applied Economics, V, 281-288. As title. Collard, D. (1973) Pride and prejudice in the housing market. The Economic Journal, 83, 510-515. As title. Collard, D. (1984) Exclusion by estate agents - an analysis. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 143152. Examines the potential impact of legislation and the potential of professional bodies to affect the practices of individual gatekeepers. The competing merits of the private market and public sector and the anonymity of the computer are discussed. Collard, D. (1984) Pride and prejudice in the housing market. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 153163. Use of supply and demand analysis to assess the impact of discrimination within the housing market. Collison, P. (1967) Immigrants and residence. Sociology, 1(3), 277-292. As title. Commission for Racial Equality (see CRE below) Community Relations Council (1977) Housing Choice and Ethnic Concentration: an attitude study. London: Community Relations Council. Based on a survey undertaken in Bradford, Haringey, Lambeth and Leicester suggesting that spatial segregation frequently reflected choice. However, the CRC also argue that housing authorities should improve housing in these areas. The report notes some moves by minority ethnic communities away from existing areas of residence and emphasises the need to remove any constraints to this process. The publication is also useful for its inclusion of a

study of the attitudes of community in the survey areas.

the

majority

ethnic

Community Relations Council (1976) Housing in MultiRacial Areas: report of a working party of housing directors. London: Community Relations Council. As title. Community Relations Council (1977) Race and Local Authority Housing: information on ethnic groups. A report by a working party of the London Housing Research Group. London: Community Relations Council. As title. Community Research Action Group (1970) The Gypsies: a step towards genocide. Manchester: Community Research Action Group. Passionately criticises the 1968 Caravan Sites Act for its ineffectiveness in tackling the underprovision of sites for gypsies and draws attention to the continuing tendency for gypsies to be evicted from a succession of unofficial sites. Whilst the publication focuses on Manchester, some material on the general gypsy population is also included. Compton, P. (1996) Indigenous and older minorities. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 243-282. Draws attention to groups often ignored in the British race and housing literature, for example Irish and Italian communities. Connor, T. (1987) The London Irish. London: London Strategic Policy Unit. As title. Cooper, J. and Qureshi, T. (1993) Through Patterns Not Our Own: a study of the regulation of racial violence on the council estates of East London. Essex: University of East London. The report criticises the London Borough of Newhams complaints system for dealing with racial harassment problems. In particular Cooper and Qureshi argue that the controlling landlord function of housing officers

is incompatible with the support functions required to successfully resolve racial harassment cases to the satisfaction of the complainant. They suggest that the situation is exacerbated further by bureaucratisation within the local authority since the legal department perceives itself to be working for the housing officer rather than the tenant. Recommendations for remedying these difficulties are made. Cooper, J. and Qureshi, T. (1993) Violence, racial harassment and council tenants: reflections on the limits of the disputing process. Housing Studies, 8(4), 241-255. Based upon Cooper and Qureshi (1993 above). Cowen, H. (1983) Homelessness Among Black Youth: policies and planning. Gloucester: Gloucestershire College of Arts and Technology. Notes the inability of homelessness and race relations legislation to effectively tackle the homelessness problems facing young people from minority ethnic communities. Criticisms of the effectiveness of urban policy and the actions of local authorities are also made. Cowen, H. with Lording, R. (1983) The Hidden Homeless: report of a survey on homelessness and housing among single young blacks in Gloucester. Gloucester: Gloucestershire College of Arts and Technology. Highlights the difficulties in gaining accommodation faced by minority ethnic communities in Gloucester due to economic factors and the lack of sensitive service provision from housing organisations. The report argues for greater action from the local authority in particular to address these issues. Craig, G. and Rai, D. K. (1996) Social security, community care and race: the marginal dimension. In W. I. U. Ahmad and K. Atkin (eds.), Race and Community Care. Buckingham: Open University Press, 124-143. Provides a link to the wider care literature including demonstration of the unresponsiveness of the DSS to ethnic diversity.

Crawley, R. and Lemos, G. (1993) Training Needs Analysis of Existing and Emerging Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Associations in the Midlands. Leicester: BASE Trust/WMHTS. Provides a short outline of the development of the black and minority ethnic housing association movement and the operational difficulties facing it. The report focuses upon 11 associations operating in the Midlands and their training needs. CRE (1977) Housing Need Among Ethnic Minorities: comments on the consultative document on housing policy presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Secretary of State for Wales. London: CRE. Argues for the ethnic monitoring of local authority housing allocations policies. CRE (1978) Estate Agents and Racial Discrimination: a summary of evidence submitted to the Department of Trade and Industry by the former Community Relations Commission. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1978) Housing Centres and the Asian Community. London: CRE. Highlights factors which housing advice agencies should address in order to meet the housing advice needs of the Asian community.

CRE (1979) Brick Lane and Beyond: an inquiry into racial strife and violence in Tower Hamlets. London: CRE. One of a number of reports addressing race and housing issues in Tower Hamlets and outlining the extent of racial violence against the Bangladeshi community. CRE (1980) Cottrell and Rothon Estate Agents: report of a formal investigation. London: CRE. Account of an investigation which led to the serving of a non-discrimination notice and demonstrated that vendors were being aided where they wished to avoid selling their home to a minority ethnic household. CRE (1980) Reports of Two Formal Investigations by the Commission for Racial Equality in Certain Activities of (i) Mr G. D. Midda and D. S. Services Ltd (ii) Allens Accommodation Bureau. London: CRE. Concerns two separate formal investigations examining the practices of letting agencies. Held that in both cases the majority of lettings appeared to be unavailable to minority ethnic households. CRE (1980) Ethnic Minority Groups and Housing Associations: a report of four seminars held in November and December 1979. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1980) A Guide for Accommodation Agencies and Landlords. London: CRE. Guide to the implications of the Race Relations Act. CRE (1980) A Guide for Estate Agents and Vendors. London: CRE. Guide to the implications of the Race Relations Act. CRE (1980) Local Authorities and the Implications of Section 71 of the Race Relations Act 1976. London: CRE. Contains data on housing and recommendations for the fulfilment of Section 71 duties. CRE (1981) Racial Harassment on Local Authority Housing Estates: a report prepared by the London Race and Housing Forum. London: CRE. As title.

CRE (1981) Report of Four Formal Investigations. London: CRE. Outlines the circumstances concerning a formal investigation into pressure from individual residents to prevent a gypsy applicant from being allocated housing. CRE (1982) The Allocation of Housing with Particular Reference to Work Permit Holders: report of a formal investigation. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1983) Collingwood Housing Association. London: CRE. The report suggests that subjective racism had been allowed to flourish at Collingwood Housing Association and had become institutionalised within the organisation. Indeed, it was clear that minority ethnic households were considered to be a threat to existing organisational norms. The report also draws attention to the low level of local authority nominations of minority ethnic households for Collingwoods accommodation and notes that council officers generally had complete discretion in deciding who to nominate. CRE (1984a) Race and Housing in Liverpool: a research report. London: CRE. Report which identified that minority ethnic households seeking local authority housing were allocated to particular areas of South Liverpool, and to poor quality accommodation, due to processes of conscious or unconscious stereotyping. CRE (1984b) Hackney Housing Investigated. London: CRE. Reports the investigation conducted by the CRE which found discrimination against minority ethnic households in Hackney Councils housing allocations process and led to a non-discrimination notice being served on the borough. The research was groundbreaking since it relied purely upon statistical information to demonstrate that race was the key factor in shaping differential outcomes, rather than relying on individual examples of discrimination. The performance of Hackney was

promoted widely as being typical of many other local authorities and is sometimes seen as a catalyst for the development of local authority race equality policies. CRE (1984) Hackney Housing Investigated: summary of a formal investigation report. London: CRE. Summary as noted above. CRE (1984) Abbey National Building Society: report of a formal investigation. London: CRE. Concerns the quashing of a non-discrimination notice served on the Abbey National Building Society with respect to employment practices. CRE (1985) Walsall Metropolitan Borough Council Practices and Policies of Housing Allocation. London: CRE. Draws attention to discrimination occurring through the local authoritys dispersal policy, highlighting the role of tenant pressure. The CRE also expresses concern regarding formal and informal policies restricting the access to accommodation of owneroccupiers and separated families with dependants outside the UK. CRE (1985) Race and Mortgage Lending. London: CRE. Study of practices in Rochdale with the intention of clarifying the problems which it was believed minority ethnic households were experiencing in gaining access to mainstream finance for owneroccupation. Little direct discrimination was uncovered, although there appeared to be general practices which had the effect of disadvantaging minority ethnic households, such as blanket policies of not lending on properties without front gardens, or on properties below a specified purchase price, or in particular areas. CRE (1987) Living in Terror: a report on racial violence and harassment in housing. London: CRE. This frequently referred to report includes best practice and some outline of the history of racial harassment. CRE (1988a) Racial discrimination in a London Estate Agency: report of a formal investigation into Richard Barclay and Co. London: CRE.

As title. CRE (1988) Homelessness and Discrimination: report of a formal investigation by the Commission for Racial Equality into the allocation of housing by the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. London: CRE. A widely referred to report demonstrating direct and indirect discrimination by the local authority against Bangladeshi households seeking to gain accommodation. A non-discrimination notice was served on the local authority, and the CRE made a number of further recommendations of good practice. CRE (1988) Housing and Ethnic Minorities: statistical information. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1989a) Racial Discrimination in Liverpool City Council: report of a formal investigation into the Housing Department. London: CRE. Details the CRE investigation which uncovered direct discrimination against minority ethnic households in local authority nominations for housing association accommodation. Indirect discrimination is also identified in the local authoritys prioritisation for its own new accommodation of particular access channels which contained few minority ethnic residents. The investigation led to the CRE serving a non-discrimination notice on the City Council. CRE (1989b) Racial Discrimination in an Oldham Estate Agency: report of a formal investigation into Norman Lester and Co. London: CRE. The CRE held that the estate agent was discriminating against Asian households seeking properties. In particular they were less likely to be offered mortgage facilities and would not be allowed to purchase properties where the vendor did not wish there to be an Asian purchaser. White households were advised to avoid purchases in Asian areas whilst Asian households were pushed towards these areas. CRE (1989) Racial Discrimination in Property Development: report of a formal investigation into Oaklawn Developments Ltd, Leicestershire. London: CRE.

Held that Oaklawn Developments was discriminating against minority ethnic households in the sale of newly developed properties. CRE (1989) Positive Action and Racial Equality in Housing. London: CRE. Useful publication emphasising the scope for positive action within employment and service delivery. CRE (1990a) Sorry, Its Gone - Testing for Racial Discrimination in the Private Rented Sector. London: CRE. Focusing on the private rented housing market, using actor testing. The research indicated little discrimination in access to guest houses and small hotels, however, one fifth of accommodation agencies appeared to discriminate. CRE (1990) Out of Order: report of a formal investigation into the London Borough of Southwark. London: CRE. Outlines the investigation which led to the decision to serve a non-discrimination notice on the local authority on the basis of indirect discrimination. The details concerned a decision to reserve large numbers of newly built properties for the white residents being decanted from a neighbouring estate. CRE (1990) Putting Your House in Order: estate agents and equal opportunity policies. London: CRE. Focuses on equal opportunities initiatives introduced by Royal Life Estates and Tom Leach Properties as a result of CRE investigations which demonstrated that Asian and white prospective purchasers of properties were receiving different information from estate agents in Oldham. CRE (1991) Race Relations Code of Practice in Rented Housing. London: CRE. Statutory code applying to all housing organisations in England, Scotland and Wales. CRE (1991) Accounting for Equality: a handbook on ethnic monitoring in housing. London: CRE. Best practice guide outlining the seven principles of ethnic monitoring: consultation, confidentiality,

self-classification, effectiveness, action and accountability.

monitoring,

CRE (1991) Achieving Racial Equality in Housing Coops. London: CRE. Suggests minority ethnic communities lack knowledge about co-ops leading to under-representation in this sector. The report argues that word of mouth recruitment perpetuates the existing white image of co-ops and is indirectly discriminatory. The guide provides best practice for co-ops to achieve race equality in their operation. CRE (1992) Racial Discrimination in Hostel Accommodation: report of a formal investigation. London: CRE. Formal investigation into Refugee Housing Association. CRE (1992) Response to the Department of the Environments consultation paper Gypsy Sites Policy and Illegal Camping: reform of the Caravan Sites Act 1968. London: CRE. Argued that the Governments proposals would lead to a reduction in site provision and may constitute indirect racial discrimination. CRE (1992) Race Relations Code of Practice in NonRented (Owner Occupied) Housing. London: CRE. As title.

CRE (1993a) Housing Associations and Racial Equality. London: CRE. This report represents the findings of a formal investigation into the housing association movement in England, Scotland and Wales focusing upon 40 housing associations and highlighting a gap between paper policies and practical action. Although most housing associations had adopted race equality policies, only a quarter were found to have plans for implementing those policies and only two appeared to have tied their plans to a timetable of action. The investigation also suggested that the majority of housing associations operated quite limited ethnic monitoring systems and were failing to adequately assess the needs of minority ethnic households when drawing up their housing development programmes. The CRE added that there were further areas of concern including the low proportion of housing association minority ethnic employees and committee members and the lack of comprehensive race equality training programmes for staff and committee members amongst many housing associations. . CRE (1993) Housing Associations and Racial Equality in Scotland. London: CRE. Notes that most of the housing associations surveyed had race equality policies. However, they were frequently limited in scope and all lacked action plans. The CRE also highlighted a tendency for associations to keep ethnic records rather than conduct comprehensive ethnic monitoring. CRE (1993) Room For All: tenants associations and racial equality. London: CRE. Notes that social housing providers frequently failed to ensure that minority ethnic residents were adequately represented in tenant consultation exercises. The report emphasises the need for housing providers to ensure that minority ethnic tenants are fairly represented on tenants associations and are able to equally participate in their work. CRE (1993) Ten Steps Towards Racial Equality: guidelines for tenants associations. London: CRE. As title.

CRE (1993) Housing Allocations in Oldham. London: CRE. The CRE argued that the local authority had steered Asian households to inner city estates which offered them poor quality accommodation. These findings were disputed by the local authority, although agreement to introduce race equality measures over a three year period were agreed. The report also offers a reminder of the way in which assessments of housekeeping standards can be used to detrimentally stereotype minority ethnic households. CRE (1994a) Environmental Health and Racial Equality. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1994) Compulsory Competitive Tendering of Housing Management: draft statutory instruments and guidance - response of the Commission for Racial Equality. London: CRE. Provides advice on an important and under-researched area with respect to race equality issues. CRE (1995) Local Authorities and Racial Equality: a summary report. London: CRE. Examination of the race equality employment record of local authorities including best practice recommendations. CRE (1995) Racial Equality Means Quality: a standard for racial equality for local government. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1995) Tackling Racial Harassment: a caseworkers handbook. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1995) Action on Racial Harassment: a guide for multi-agency panels. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1995) Racial Equality and Council Contractors. London: CRE. As title. CRE (1995) Action on Racial Harassment: a guide for multi-agency panels. London: CRE.

As title. CRE (1997) Race, Culture and Community Care. London: CRE. As title. Cross, C. (1978) Ethnic Minorities in the Inner City: the ethnic dimension in urban deprivation in England. London: CRE. Argues that whilst there are common issues facing the majority and minority ethnic communities in Britains inner cities, there are also factors specific to minority ethnic communities which should be recognised by policy makers. The book outlines settlement patterns and includes discussion of the reluctance of local authority officers and councillors to take into account the specific housing needs of minority ethnic communities due to the perceived risk of alienating the white community. Cross, M. (1986) Migration and exclusion: Caribbean echoes and British realities. In C. Brock (ed.), The Caribbean in Europe. London: Frank Cass, 85-110. Includes reference to settlement and tenure patterns. Cross, M. (1990) Review article - the ghetto and the underclass. New Community, 17(1), 141-149. Includes discussion of spatial issues and Smiths (1989 below) book. Cross, M. (ed.) (1992) Ethnic Minorities and Industrial Change in Europe and North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edited collection with some reference to spatial segregation. Cross, M. (1992) Race and ethnicity. In A. Thornley (ed.) The Crisis of London. London: Routledge, 103118. Predominantly addresses employment issues, but some discussion of spatial issues. Cross, M. (1992) Editorial. New Community, 18(3), 349-353. Short essay introducing a collection of articles focusing upon racism, housing and the environment. Cross notes the tendency for British race and housing

research to become policy rather than theoretically orientated in the 1990s. Cross, M. (1993) Editorial. New Community, 19(3), 377-381. Discussion includes reference to the work of Peach and Byron (1993 below) and the suggestion that if Rex and Moores (1967 below) housing classes have any predictive power for shaping life chances today, then their capacity to do is mediated by gender (p.378). Cross, M. and Entzinger, H. (1988) Caribbean minorities in Britain and the Netherlands: comparative questions. In M. Cross and H. Entzinger (eds.), Lost Illusion: Caribbean minorities in Britain and the Netherlands. London: Routledge, 1-33. Includes discussion of housing issues. Cross, M. and Johnson, M. R. D. (1982) Migration, settlement and inner city policy: the British case. In J. Solomos (ed.), Migrant Workers in Metropolitan Cities. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation, 117133. Includes a discussion of settlement patterns and housing outcomes, arguing that there needs to be an end to colour blind policies for the inner city in favour of policy responses more sensitive to the needs of minority ethnic communities. Croydon Council for Community Relations Housing SubCommittee (1986) Moving Towards Racial Equality in Housing in Croydon? London: Croydon Council for Community Relations Housing Sub-Committee. Proceedings of a meeting of CCCR leading to the promotion of a fair housing policy. Draws attention to paper policies and individual racism within the Borough Housing Department. Dahya, B. (1972) Pakistanis in England. New Community, II(1), 25-34. As title. Brief reference to housing issues suggesting that the Pakistani community wished to minimise housing expenditure. Dahya, B. (1973) Pakistanis in Britain: transients or settlers. Race XIV(3), 241-277.

As title. Dahya, B. (1974) The nature of Pakistani ethnicity in industrial cities in Britain. In A. Cohen (ed.), Urban Ethnicity. London: Tavistock, 77-118. The best known of the material attributed to the choice school, including a case study of Bradford and a critique of Rex and Moore (1967 below). Dahya accepts the existence of racial discrimination, but argues that choice shaped the housing outcomes of the Pakistani community at the time of initial settlement. In particular Dahya suggests that the community chose low cost accommodation and was willing to accept relatively poor housing conditions. Nevertheless, Dahya expects the communitys housing preferences to change, potentially bringing it into conflict with discrimination. Daley, P. (1996) Black-African: students who stayed. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 44-65. Demographic characteristics, geographical distribution and housing experiences. Dalton, M. and Daghlian, S. (1989) Race and Housing in Glasgow - The Role of Housing Associations. London: CRE. Highlights the poor quality of housing experienced by many minority ethnic households in Glasgow and the failure of the housing association movement to respond sensitively to meet the diversity of needs within their areas of operation, a situation which was exacerbated by a lack of housing association staff or committee members from minority ethnic communities. Dalton, M. and Seaman, J. M. (1973) The distribution of New Commonwealth immigrants in the London Borough of Ealing, 1961-66. Transactions, Institute of British Geographers, 58, 21-39. As title. Daly, G. (1996) Migrants and gate keepers: the links between immigration and homelessness in Western Europe. Cities, 13(1), 11-23.

Includes Britain.

a

discussion

of

Daly, M. (1990) Anywhere Camden. London: London Race Notes that the travellers permanent accommodation but the local authority.

attitudes

and

trends

in

but Here: travellers in and Housing Unit. in the case study sought faced discrimination from

Damer, S. (1976) A note on housing allocation. In M. Edwards, F. Gray, S. Merrett and J. Swann (eds.), Housing and Class in Britain. London: Political Economy of Housing Workshop, 72-74. Referred to in the literature review, highlights the distinctions between the deserving and undeserving which have been made in the social housing sector. Daniel, W. W. (1968) Racial Discrimination in England. Harmondsworth: Penguin. From the PEP report Racial Discrimination in Britain, includes an extensive section on housing outlining the extent of discrimination uncovered through the use of interviews and testers.

Davies, J. and Lyle, S. with Deacon, A., Law, I., Julienne, L. and Kay, H. (1996) Discounted Voices: homelessness amongst young black and minority ethnic people in England. Sociology and Social Research Working Paper 15. Leeds: School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Leeds. Notes disproportionately increasing levels of homelessness amongst minority ethnic young people. The findings suggest a lack of awareness of housing options and a greater reliance upon the local authority housing department than white young people. Minority ethnic young people were less likely to have slept rough than young white people, and there was perceived to be a lack of support for minority ethnic young people seeking to meet their housing and other social needs. Minority ethnic young people supported the importance of specialist organisations run from their own community. Davies, J. G. (1972) The Evangelistic Bureaucrat. London: Tavistock. Focusing on the Rye Hill area of Newcastle and including a study of the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Davies provides a critique of the Rex and Moore (1967 below) housing classes thesis, arguing in particular that the minority ethnic communities which he studied had no desire to move into local authority housing. Davies, J. G. (1985) Asian Housing in Britain. Research Report 6. London: Social Affairs Unit. Argues that Asian owner-occupation is a success story which has been devalued by academics and the race relations lobby. Particular criticism is made of Rex and Moores (1967 below) work. A case study of Newcastle is included. Davies, J. G. and Taylor, J. (1970) Race, community and no conflict. New Society, 9/7, 67-69. Davies and Taylor argue that Rex and Moore (1967 below) oversimplify the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. They suggest that the Asian communities in their research studies have made positive housing choices rather than demonstrating the passivity which they argue Rex and Moore portray.

Davies, P. and Newton, K. (1972) The social patterns of immigrants areas. Race, XIV(1) 43-57. As title. Davis, C. (1988) Racial Harassment Policies and Procedures for Associations Working in Leeds. Leeds: NFHA. Guide for housing associations wishing to tackle racial harassment. Includes a short more general section on the development of equal opportunities policies. Davis, C. (1996) Achievements and Challenges 1996. Leeds: Charitable Trust of Housing Associations in West Yorkshire. Review of the work of possibly the best known of the charitable trusts set up to aid the work of black and minority ethnic housing associations.

Davis, C. and Salam, S. with Jones, A. and Paterson, G. (1996) Black and Asian Housing Needs - Calderdale. Leeds: Charitable Trust of Housing Associations in West Yorkshire. A housing needs survey including individual and group interviews. The report is also important methodologically as an example of the growing number of surveys, often undertaken for or by black and minority ethnic housing associations, providing qualitative research and a voice for the researched group. One of the key themes running throughout the recommendations made is the need for greater publicity to highlight the range of housing options available, including house improvement grants, local authority accommodation, remedies to racial harassment and housing association accommodation. The need to provide translated material and culturally sensitive services underpins the need for the greater accessibility of these areas. Housing associations are encouraged to amend housing layout and design in new properties and those undergoing adaptations. However, the report also demonstrates the links between housing and other issues with recommendations concerning the local environment, employment, child care, police/security measures and the social services/health authority. Davis, J., Grant, R. and Locke, A. (1994) Out of Site, Out of Mind: New Age travellers and the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill. London: The Childrens Society. Focuses on New Age travellers in South Avon and Somerset, including a discussion of available sites and the likelihood of increased pressure on lifestyles because of new governmental policies. Davison, R. B. (1963) The distribution of immigrant groups in London. Race, V(2), 56-59. As title. Davison, R. B. (1966) Black British: immigrants to England. London: Oxford University Press. Outline of housing outcomes within minority ethnic communities. Deakin, N. (1977/78) Housing and ethnic minorities an overview. New Community, VI (1 and 2), 4-7.

Outlines the disadvantage affecting minority ethnic households in housing conditions. Deakin, N. and Cohen, B. (1970) Dispersal and choice: towards a strategy for ethnic minorities in Britain. Environment and Planning, II, 193-201. As title. Deakin, N. and Ungerson, C. (1973) Beyond the ghetto: the illusion of choice. In D. Donnison and D. Eversley (eds.), London: Urban Patterns, Problems and Policies. London: Heinemann, 215-247. Deakin and Ungerson begin by examining the use of the term ghetto before outlining the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities and the links between housing and employment. Deakin and Ungerson also include a discussion of dispersal policy and make policy recommendations. Dean, R. (1993) Policy Into Practice: a guide to equal opportunity plans in housing services. Coventry: Institute of Housing. Step by step guide to the mechanics of implementing equal opportunities policies within housing organisations through the use of action plans. Dennis, B. (1991) Agents of Change: a report of the Joint NFHA West Midlands Regional Council/Housing Corporation Seminar on Equality of Opportunity. Birmingham: West Midlands NFHA. Initiative to promote the development of housing association equal opportunities policies within the West Midlands. Department of the Environment (1975) Race Relations and Housing: observations on the report on housing of the Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration White Paper. London: HMSO. As title. Department of the Environment (1989) Tackling Racial Violence and Harassment in Local Authority Housing: a guide to good practice for local authorities. London: HMSO. Contains dos and donts of tackling racial violence and harassment based on research conducted by Brunel University in six local authorities

Desai, R. (1963) Indian Immigrants in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Includes material on settlement patterns and housing. Desai, U. (1987) Racial harassment, housing and community action. Race and Class, XXIX(2), 69-76. As title. Dhanjal, B. (1977/78) Asian housing in Southall: some impressions. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 88-93. Deals with the housing conditions and aspirations of Asian communities in Southall, including changing patterns by age and class. Dhooge, Y. and Barelli, J. (1996) Racial Attacks and Harassment : the response of social landlords. London: HMSO. Outlining best practice and providing a research summary of responses from a questionnaire mailed to 335 local authorities and 263 housing associations. The report highlights that 45 per cent of local authority housing departments in England had racial harassment policies in comparison with approximately 90 per cent of the housing associations surveyed. The report suggests some improvement in the implementation of good practice, including preventative strategies, support for victims and action against perpetrators. Dixon, A. and Turkington, R. W. (nd) Sheltered Housing in the West Midlands Metropolitan Area: the experience of Caribbean and African elders: first stage report. Birmingham: University of Central England in Birmingham. As title. Docklands Forum (1993) Race and Housing in Londons Docklands. London: Docklands Forum. Highlights the rise in racial violence in London Docklands and the scapegoating of minority ethnic communities as the cause of housing shortages in the area. Also draws attention to the underrepresentation of minority ethnic communities in the private housing developed in Docklands and difficulties within the social sector housing allocations process.

Doherty, J. (1969) The distribution and concentration of immigrants in London. Race Today, December, 227232. As title. Doherty, J. (1973) Race, class and residential segregation in Britain. Antipode, 5, 45-51. Includes a discussion of academic orthodoxy, dispersal policies, and the nature of discrimination and prejudice. Doherty concludes that the issue of class has largely been ignored within research, and that race and class are mutually reinforcing factors. Doherty emphasises that the class structure of minority ethnic households would maintain spatial concentration in the inner city even if racial discrimination was effectively tackled. Doling, J. and Davies, M. (1983) Ethnic minorities and the protection of the rent acts. New Community, X(3), 487-492. Discusses possible causes of the underutilisation of the fair rent system by minority ethnic households. Dorling, D. (1995) A New Social Atlas of Britain. Chichester: John Wiley. Includes information on the spatial patterns of minority ethnic groups. Dorling, D. (1997) Regional and local differences in the housing tenure of ethnic minorities. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 147169. Dissects the 1991 Census data through an examination of economic, social and geographical factors and questions a number of assumptions in existing interpretations. For example, Bangladeshi households are characterised as over-represented in local authority housing, but are actually over-represented in owner-occupation once geographical location and social class are taken into account. Researchers are encouraged to interview minority ethnic households in order to discover the processes underlying housing outcomes.

Dorsett, R. (1998) Ethnic Minorities in the Inner City. Bristol: Policy Press. Emphasises the diversity of the spatial outcomes of minority ethnic communities. Nevertheless, Dorsett concludes based on the Fourth PSI study that minority ethnic communities tend to be more spatially concentrated than white communities and tend to live in more deprived neighbourhoods. The outcomes of Indians and African Asians suggested that there were relatively high incomes in some areas of concentration, although Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities tended to experience high levels of concentration and deprivation. Dorsett argues that it is clear that processes of choice and constraint are contributing to spatial outcomes. Doyle, M. and McEnaney, J. (1983) Vietnamese in Leeds. Leeds: Leeds University Union. Brief section noting the concentration of the Vietnamese community in Leeds in relatively poor quality accommodation. Drake, M. (1992) Europe and 1992: a handbook for local housing authorities. Coventry: Institute of Housing. Includes small section relating to race issues. Duke, C. (1970) Colour and rehousing: a study of redevelopment in Leeds. London: Institute of Race Relations. As title. Duncan, S. S. (1974) Cosmetic planning or social engineering?: improvement grants and improvement areas in Huddersfield. Area, 6, 259-271. Notes in passing that areas with high levels of minority ethnic communities seem to be disadvantaged in obtaining housing improvement grants, Duncan, S. S. (1977) Self-help: the allocation of mortgages and the formation of housing sub-markets. Area, 8(4), 307-316. Includes discussion of building societies discriminatory attitudes to minority ethnic households. Duncan, S. S. (1977) Housing Disadvantage and Residential Mobility: immigrants and institutions in

a northern town. Working Papers No. 5. Falmer: University of Sussex, Dept. of Urban and Regional Studies. Based on research in Huddersfield demonstrating the way in which the employment position of Asian communities hindered access to mortgage finance, given the practices of building societies. In addition there was relatively little chance of minority ethnic households trading up because of building society attitudes to providing mortgages for properties in areas of existing Asian residence. Local authority house improvement grants were also directed away from these areas. Duncan, T. (1996) Neighbours Views of Official Sites for Travelling People: a survey based on three case studies in Scotland. Glasgow: The Planning Exchange. Emphasises that well designed and managed traveller sites cause few problems for neighbours despite the perception of likely problems prior to their development. Dutta, R. and Taylor, J. (1989) Housing Equality - An Action Guide. London: CHAR. Includes brief reference to race and housing issues. Eade, J. (1989) The Politics of Community: the Bangladeshi population in East London. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Avebury. Focuses on the Bangladeshi community in the East End, including one chapter addressing housing issues. Eade, J., Vamplew, T. and Peach, C. (1996) The Bangladeshis: the encapsulated community. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 150-160. Highlights the distinctiveness of the Bangladeshi experience with reference to housing tenure and geographical distribution. Egan, K. and Tilki, M. with Hickey, G. and McGowan, M. (1995) Limited opportunities: economic disadvantage and access to housing for single Irish women. London: CARA. The report notes the difficulties faced by single Irish women in a housing market which is increasingly

private sector led, facing this group.

given

the

income

Elam, G. (1992) Survey of Admission Resettlement Units. London: HMSO. As title.

difficulties

to

London

Farrah, M. (1986) Black elders in Leicester: an action research report on the needs of black elderly people of African descent from the Caribbean. Social Services Research, 1, 47-49. Farrah not only indicates the housing needs amongst elders in Leicester, but is also cited in the literature review above as indicating that carers, as well as those they care for, have high levels of housing need. Fawzi El-Solh, C. (1991) Somalis in Londons East End: a community striving for recognition. New Community, 17(4), 539-552. Includes material on residential location. Federation of Black Housing Organisations and Merseyside Profile Group (1987) Black People Do Not Cause Slums - They are Forced to Live in Them. London: FBHO. Proceedings of race and housing conference held in 1986. Draws attention to the inaction of Liverpool City Council in response to the CREs (1984a above) research report highlighting the inequality experienced by minority ethnic households in access to housing. Federation of Black Housing Organisations (1993) National Directory of Black Housing Organisations. London: FBHO. Directory of black and minority ethnic led housing groups, including other useful contacts and case studies. Fenton, M. (1976) Price discrimination under nonmonopolistic conditions. Applied Economics, 8, 135144. As title.

Fenton, M. (1977) Asian Households in OwnerOccupation: a study of the pattern, costs and experiences of households in Greater Manchester. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 2. Bristol: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. Notes that Asian households in the suburbs usually had to pay a premium above white households in order to gain accommodation. Fenton, M. (1978) Costs of discrimination in the owner-occupied sector. New Community, VI(3), 279-282. Argues that we should examine the added monetary and non-monetary costs of discrimination which face households rather than simply processes of exclusion. There is also discussion of the possible causes of price discrimination. Fenton, M. and Collard, D. (1977) Do coloured tenants pay more?: some evidence. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 1. Bristol: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title. Fenton, M. (1984) Costs of discrimination in the owner-occupied sector. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 107-112. Examines the way in which discrimination in the wider owner-occupied market leads to minority ethnic households paying more for their accommodation. Fenton, M. (1984) Price discrimination under nonmonopolistic conditions. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 131-142. Notes variations by ethnic group, including the potential impact of housing choice, knowledge of the market and discrimination. Fenton, M. and Collard, D. (1984) Do coloured tenants pay more?: some evidence. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 98-106.

Highlights the greater financial cost of housing to minority ethnic households. Fenton, S. (1987) Ageing Minorities: black people as they grow old in Britain. London: CRE. Pamphlet including coverage of housing issues. Ferguson, D. M. and O Mahony, B. (1991) Young, Black and Homeless in London: the reality behind the myth. London: Ujima Housing Association and Barnados. Emphasises the weak economic position of minority ethnic young people in the case study and the hidden nature of homelessness which this group experience. Strategies for coping with homelessness included seeking support from friends and relatives and an unwillingness to sleep rough. There was dissatisfaction with the services provided by local authorities, housing associations and private landlords. A fifth of respondents perceived racism in their attempts to gain accommodation. Field, J. and Hedges, B. (1979) Ethnic Groups and Housing Stress. London: Social and Community Planning Research. As title. Field, S. (1985) Resettling Refugees: the lessons of research. Home Office Research Study No. 87. London: HMSO. Includes the geography of refugee settlement. FitzGerald, M. (1989) Legal approaches to racial harassment in council housing: the case for reassessment. New Community, 16(1), 93-105. Argues that whilst the legal approach is important in resolving racial harassment issues, it should be accompanied by complementary strategies. FitzGerald notes the extent of racial harassment and the practical difficulties of gaining eviction and, therefore, recommends the adoption of preventative strategies and inter-departmental and inter-agency approaches. FitzGerald, M. and Hale, C. (1996) Ethnic Minorities, Victimisation and Racial Harassment. Home Office Study No. 154. London: Home Office. As title.

Flett, H. (1977) Council housing and the location of ethnic minorities. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 5. Bristol: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title. Flett, H. (1979) Black council tenants in Birmingham. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 12. Bristol: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title. Flett, H. (1979) The practice of racial dispersal in Birmingham, 1969-1975. Journal of Social Policy, VIII(3), 289-309. As title. Flett, H. (1979) Bureaucracy and ethnicity: notions of eligibility to public housing. In S. Wallman (ed.), Ethnicity at Work. London: Macmillan, 135-152. Outlines the extent of English ethnocentrism working against minority ethnic communities within more general distinctions of deserving and undeserving status in the office culture of an English local authority housing department. Flett, H. (1979) Dispersal policies in council housing: arguments and evidence. New Community, 7(2), 184-194. Examines the issues concerning dispersal policies for the promotion of greater integration in society and for access to better quality housing. The article includes discussion of patterns of household preference and allocation within the GLC, Birmingham City Council and Manchester City Council. Flett, H. (1979) Black council tenants in Birmingham. Research Unit on Ethnic Relations Working Paper 12. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston. As title. Flett, H. (1981) The Politics of Dispersal in Birmingham. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 14. Birmingham: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title.

Flett, H. (1982) Dimensions of inequality: Birmingham council housing allocations. New Community, X(1), 4656. Without reaching firm conclusions, Flett poses a number of questions concerning the ranking of good and poor areas and whether poor areas are rated on the basis of dominant white norms. Flett, H. (1984) Dimensions of inequality: Birmingham council housing allocations. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 20-36. As Flett (1982) above. Flett, H. (1984) Bureaucracy and ethnicity: notions of eligibility to public housing. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 37-51. Contrasts the professional view of senior managers with the particularism of more junior staff. Flett, H. (1984) Asians in council housing: an analysis. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 5280. Notes a growth of demand amongst Asian communities for local authority housing and the difficulties which they face in realising this demand due to continuing stereotyping from housing officers. Flett also notes the way in which Asian households expectations of their rights as tenants conflicted with the prevailing paternalistic attitudes of housing managers. Flett, H. (1984) Dispersal policies in council housing: arguments and evidence. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 81-96. Examines the arguments for and against policies for the dispersal of minority ethnic households within a local authority area and the contrasting policies of Manchester and Birmingham City Councils up until the mid 1970s.

Flett, H., Henderson, J. and Brown, B. (1979) The practice of racial dispersal in Birmingham, 19691975. Journal of Social Policy, 8, 289-309. As title. Flett, H. and Peaford, M. (1977) The Effect of Slum Clearance on Multi-occupation. Working Papers on Ethnic Relations No. 4. Bristol: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations. As title. Forbes, D. (1988) Action on Racial Harassment. London: London Housing Unit. Includes definitions of racial harassment, outlines of general legal principles and the powers and duties of local authorities (with specific reference to housing departments) and the remedies available to victims. Ford, J. and Vincent, J. (1990) Homelessness Amongst Afro-Caribbean Women in Leicester. Loughborough: Department of Social Sciences/Centre for Research in Social Policy, Loughborough University. Draws attention to hidden homelessness, particularly amongst young African Caribbean women leaving home because of family disputes. Temporary accommodation from family and friends offered access to shelter not always perceived to be available from white agencies. Forman, C. (1989) Spitalfields: a battle for land. London: Shipman. Focusing particularly on the Bangladeshi community in Spitalfields. Forman highlights poor housing conditions, slum clearance and squatting, dispersal, the provision of accommodation by co-operatives, housing associations and local authorities, homelessness and racist allocations policies. Francis, P. and Matthews, R. (eds.) (1993) Tackling Racial Attacks. Leicester: University of Leicester. Not housing specific, but useful general material addressing the issues of racial attacks. Franklin, B. and Passmore, J. (1998) Developing for Diversity: the needs of minority ethnic communities. Cardiff: Taff Housing Association.

Argues that far less has been done in Wales in comparison with England to meet the housing needs of minority ethnic communities. Franklin and Passmore discuss the operation of the black and minority ethnic housing association movement in England, including the use of case studies, and add a discussion of cultural and religious needs within housing design. The report focuses on Cardiff in particular, providing socio-demographic characteristics and discussing minority ethnic housing provision. Amongst other recommendations, the report suggests the development of a black and minority ethnic housing strategy in Wales. Frey, W. H. (1979) White flight and central loss. Environment and Planning A, 11, 129-147. As title.

city

Frost, D. (1996) Racism and social segregation: settlement patterns of West African seamen in Liverpool since the nineteenth century. New Community, 22(1), 85-95. Outlines the spatial history of West African seamen in Liverpool, focusing on the influence of employment and institutional racism and their roles in the continuing spatial segregation of minority ethnic households in Liverpool. Gallagher, P. (1981) Housing and Race Relations: the role of housing policy advisers. London: CRE. As title. Gardner, S. (1994) Crossing the black and white divide: difficulties encountered and expected in research into housing needs of respondents from different backgrounds to the researcher. Studies in Equality, 1(1), 42-51. Article in Coventry University journal highlighting the methodological difficulties encountered in a housing needs study of Coventry, Leicester and Stokeon-Trent. Giddens, A. (1993) Sociology. London: Polity. Cited above for useful overview of general issues of race and ethnicity. Now in second edition published in 1997.

Gifford, A. M. (Lord) (1986) The Broadwater Farm Inquiry: report of the independent inquiry into disturbances of October 1985 at the Broadwater Farm Estate, Tottenham. London: Karia Press. As title. Gifford, A. M. (Lord) (1989) Broadwater Farm Revisited: second report of the independent inquiry into disturbances of October 1985 at the Broadwater Farm Estate, Tottenham. London: Karia Press. As title. Gilroy, R. (1993) Good Practice in Equal Opportunities. Aldershot: Avebury. Includes brief reference to race and housing issues. Gilroy, R. (1994) Women and Owner-Occupation in Britain: first the prince, then the palace? In R. Gilroy and R. Woods (eds.), Housing Women. London: Routledge, 31-57. Cited in the literature review above. Gilroy, R. and Woods, R. (eds.) (1994) Housing Women. London: Routledge. Collection of articles focusing upon the position of women in the housing market, including reference to race. Ginsburg, N. (1989) Institutional racism and local authority housing. Critical Social Policy, 8(3), 419. Applies the concept of institutional racism to access to local authority housing, arguing that institutional racism can be differentiated from individual and structural racism. Ginsburg suggests that an effective anti-racist policy must address all these factors. Ginsburg, N. (1989) The Housing Act 1988 and its policy context: a critical commentary. Critical Social Policy, 9(1), 56-81. The article includes discussion of the implications for minority ethnic communities of the 1988 Housing Act, focusing on issues such as the extension of section 71 duties of the Race Relations Act to the Housing Corporation and Tai Cymru, the increased financial pressures on small housing associations and

the likely detrimental effect of the privatisation processes in the social rented sector.

Ginsburg, N. (1989) Racial harassment policy and practice: the denial of citizenship. Critical Social Policy, 9(2), 66-81. Highlights the importance of racial harassment in causing housing inequalities for minority ethnic communities and emphasises that housing organisations should accept responsibility for attacking the problem, for example through effective victim support and action against perpetrators. Even where there are initiatives, Ginsburg draws attention to the uneasy relationship between minority ethnic community groups sceptical of the comprehensiveness of policies and housing departments. Whilst Ginsburg outlines the legal remedies available to housing authorities, he stresses the importance of involving tenants in antiharassment strategies. Ginsburg, N. (1992) Racism and housing: concepts and reality. In P. Braham, A. Rattansi and R. Skellington (eds.), Racism and Antiracism. London: Sage, 109-132. Builds on Ginsburgs Critical Social Policy articles (above), applying the concept of institutional discrimination to the British situation, although Ginsburg arguably places greater emphasis on the distinction between structural and organisational factors than the original American definitions of institutional discrimination. Glass, R. (1960) Newcomers: the West Indian in London. Centre for Urban Studies Report Number 1. London: Allen and Unwin. As title. Glendinning, C. (1983) Unshared Care. London: Routledge. Cited in the literature review as identifying the financial costs of caring which impact upon housing. Goering, J. M. (1992) Race and public housing in Britain and United States: notes for a policy relevant research agenda. New Community, 18(3), 457462. A research note comparing race and housing issues in the UK and United States. Goering, J. M. (1993) Towards the comparative exploration of public housing segregation in England

and the United States. Housing Studies, 8(4), 256273. Article outlining the size of minority ethnic populations, the operation of the private housing market, racial discrimination differences in housing policies, the division of central and local responsibilities and the role of anti-discrimination agencies. Gordon, P. (1986) Racial London: Runnymede Trust. As title.

Violence

and

Harassment.

Grampian Inter-agency Officers Working group on Travelling People (1994) Travelling People: a strategy for Grampian Region. Aberdeen: Grampian Regional Council. Restatement of the need for culturally sensitive official sites. Gray, F. (1976) The management of local authority housing. In M. Edwards, F. Gray, S. Merrett and J. Swann (eds.), Housing and Class in Britain. London: Political Economy of Housing Workshop, 75-86. Study highlighting the distinctions between deserving and undeserving status which have typically been made in the social rented sector. Cited in the literature review above. Greater London Council (1984) Racial Harassment in London: report of a panel of inquiry set up by the GLC police committee. London: Greater London Council. As title. Green, A. E. (1994) The Geography of Poverty and Wealth: evidence on the changing spatial distribution and segregation of poverty and wealth from the census of population 1991 and 1981. Coventry: Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick. Allows race issues to be linked to wider issues of inequality. Cited in the literature review above. Green, H. (1991) Counting Gypsies. London: HMSO. Covers people with a nomadic life, gypsies who rarely travel and New Age travellers.

Greve, J. (1997) Preface: Homelessness then and now. In R. Burrows, N. Pleace and D. Quilgars (eds.), Homelessness and Social Policy. London: Routledge, xi-xii. Includes brief reference to ethnicity. Gribbin, J. (1977/78) The implications of the 1976 Race Relations Act for housing. New Community, VI(1/2), 99-104. Draws attention to the relative comprehensiveness of the 1976 legislation in comparison with the 1968 Race Relations Act. Grizzard, N. And Raisman, P. (1980) Inner-city Jews in Leeds. Jewish Journal Of Sociology, 22, 21-33. As title. Grosskurth, A. (1985) Housing Association Allocations: achieving racial equality: a West Midlands case study. Summary of a report by Pat Niner in association with Valerie Karn. London: The Runnymede Trust. Summary of the report of Niner in collaboration with Karn (1985 below). Grubb, S. (1987) Race and housing: a note on the role of the Commission for Racial Equality in the operation/application of the Race Relations Act 1976. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Studies in Housing 2. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow, 107-123. Plots the nature of the law and the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities in Britain with particular reference to the CREs Hackney investigation (see CRE 1984b above). Grubb argues for more extensive ethnic monitoring systems leading to policy review. Guest, T. with Powell, D. (1994) A study of racially motivated hostile behaviour and violence in relation to minority ethnic groups in the West Midlands. Studies in Equality, 1(1), 18-30. Article in Coventry University journal including section on housing. Gunaratnum, Y. (1990) Asian carers. Carelink, 11, 6.

Cited in the literature review (above) as indicating that carers, as well as those they care for, have high levels of housing need. Habeebullah, M. and Slater, D. (1990) Equal Access to Council Housing in Rochdale. London: Community Development Foundation Publications. Highlights that local authority housing remains very much a tenure of last resort (p.53) for the Asian community, despite some increase in interest because of difficulties in otherwise meeting housing need. The report outlines the need for multi-agency approaches, including outreach work, to tackle the housing crisis facing the Asian community. It also emphasises the need for local authorities to address fears of harassment on housing estates and to introduce wider initiatives with reference to education, employment and health. Haddon, R. F. (1970) A minority in a welfare state society: the location of West Indians in the London housing market. The New Atlantis, I(2), 80-133. As title. Hahlo, K. G. (1980) Profile of a Gujerati community in Bolton. New Community, VIII(3), 295-307. Includes discussion of the communitys choice to migrate to Bolton and the decision to locate in housing for which there was little demand from other communities. There is also reference to the economic and status factors which led to preference for owneroccupation and a discussion of the extended family structure. Hajimichael, M. (1988) The Sting in the Tail: race and equal opportunity in London housing associations. London: Race and Housing Unit. One of the most important studies of housing employment issues. Based on a survey of fourteen London housing associations and reflecting the views of minority ethnic employees at those organisations, in addition to presenting some survey material. Hajimichael finds that minority ethnic employees are still under-represented in associations staff profiles, they are still found in low paid employment, they are still less likely to be promoted

and are marginalised making (p.3).

from

management

and

decision

Hammond, R. (1977/78) Ethnic records for local authority housing. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 105111. Guide to conducting ethnic monitoring. Hancock, D. and MacEwen, M. (1989) Public Housing and Ethnic Minorities in Edinburgh. London and Edinburgh: CRE and Scottish Ethnic Minorities Research Unit. Outlines the recorded position of minority ethnic communities in the Edinburgh area and the experience of minority ethnic households of the local authority housing process. There appeared to be no differences in access to accommodation per se or different qualities of accommodation, although it was believed that direct racial discrimination had occurred in decisions to allocate minority ethnic households to areas of existing minority ethnic residence. There was also evidence of racist attitudes amongst housing staff and, in addition, the report identifies elements of indirect discrimination. Recommendations for future practice within the local authority are made. Handsworth Young Persons Accommodation Committee (1985) The Work of Handsworth Young Persons Accommodation Committee. London: NACRO. Outlines the work of an agency dealing with the accommodation needs of young single homeless black offenders through liaison with other agencies. Hann, C. (1984) Public housing in Hackney. New Community, XI(3), 249-255. Summary of the Hackney investigation (see CRE 1984b above). Haringey Council (nd) Equal Opportunities the Irish Dimension: an agenda for change. London: Haringey Council. Brief reference to housing. Harrison, M. L. (1989) The Charitable Trust of Housing Associations in West Yorkshire: a review. Housing Research Working Paper. Leeds: Department of Social Policy and Sociology, University of Leeds.

As title. Harrison, M. L. (1991a) Achievements and Options: black and minority ethnic housing organisations in action. Leeds: Armley Publications. Important review of the development and opportunities of black and minority ethnic housing associations in the North of England. Harrison, M. L. (1991) Black-led Asian and Chinese housing associations in the North. Housing Review, 40(2), 36-39. As title. Harrison, M. L. (1991) Local authorities and blackled housing associations. Local Government Studies, 17(5), 1-8. As title. Harrison, M. L. (1992a) Housing association case studies: working towards good practice on minority ethnic issues. Social Policy and Sociology Research Working Paper 4. Leeds: University of Leeds. Includes three case studies of housing association practices.

Harrison, M. L. (1992b) Black-led housing organisations and the housing association movement. New Community, 18(3), 427-437. A good starting point for readers interested in the development of the black and minority ethnic housing association movement and its relationship with mainstream housing associations. Some attention is also paid, more generally, to the race equality performance of mainstream housing associations. Harrison, M. L. (1992) Housing Associations and Minority Ethnic Needs: some survey results. Leeds: University of Leeds. Outline of the responses of the mainstream housing association movement to the housing needs of minority ethnic communities based upon Harrisons primary research. Harrison argues that the leading housing associations had developed a strong awareness of race equality issues, although there was concern that associations scope for proactive development had been affected by the 1988 Housing Act. Harrison, M. L. (1992) Housing association schemes targeted on black and minority ethnic communities: some issues of design, security and development. Social Policy and Sociology Research Working Paper 5. Leeds: University of Leeds. Emphasises the importance of housing associations undertaking research and consultation with minority ethnic communities. The paper includes coverage of design issues, and consortia arrangements between black and minority ethnic and mainstream associations for the development of schemes. Harrison, M. L. (1993) The Black voluntary housing movement: pioneering pluralistic social policy in a difficult climate. Critical Social Policy, 13(3), 2135. Another example of Harrisons attempts to promote the more positive aspects of race equality practice. Provides an overview of the black and minority ethnic housing movement and outlines theoretical approaches which might offer a better understanding of the implications of the black and minority ethnic housing movement for other areas of social policy.

Harrison, M. L. (1994) Housing empowerment, minority ethnic organisations, and public policy in the UK. Canadian Journal Of Urban Research, 3(1), 29-39. As title. Harrison, M. L. (1996) Housing, Race, Social Policy and Empowerment. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Avebury. This text builds on Harrisons earlier work on the black and minority ethnic housing movement as a basis for wider discussions regarding welfare movements, pluralism, empowerment and the welfare state.

Harrison, M. L. and Davies, J. (1995) Constructing Equality: housing associations and minority ethnic contractors. Bristol: SAUS Publications. Draws on case studies focusing on the work of housing associations in six city areas, indicating that mainstream spending programmes appear to be offering little benefit to minority ethnic owned businesses. Housing associations were rarely encouraging minority ethnic owned contractors to remedy this weakness, and a trend towards greater contract sizes suggested that the positive action of housing associations was likely to reduce. Harrison, M. L. and Davies, J. (1995) Housing Associations Use of Minority Ethnic Building Contractors and Services. Joseph Rowntree Housing Research Findings 145. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Summary of above report. Harrison, M. L. and Higgins, R. (1989) A research agenda: race and housing after the 1988 Act. Housing Review, 38(5), 138-140. Argues that race and housing has become an academically neglected area. Suggests that a new research agenda needs to be forged focusing on: the work of black and minority ethnic housing associations; institutional practices following the introduction of the 1988 Housing Act; greater comparison of housing provision and housing need; and greater attention to the housing careers and aspirations of minority ethnic households in comparison with majority ethnic households. Harrison and Higgins include a strong attack on the poor record of major research funders in supporting race and housing research. Harrison, M. L., Karmani, A., Law, I., Phillips, D. and Ravetz, A. (1996) Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Associations: an evaluation of the Housing Corporations black and minority ethnic housing association strategies. London: Housing Corporation. An important report highlighting the positive effects of the Housing Corporations two five year strategies to enable the development of black and minority ethnic housing associations. The evidence presented did not, however, persuade the Corporation to

maintain a proactive strategy for the continued development of a black minority ethnic led housing movement. A watered down enabling framework was introduced (see Housing Corporation 1996 below) as a replacement to the strategy. The report is also useful for appendices making some international comparisons and assessing housing needs based upon the 1991 Census. Harrison, M. L. and Law, I. (1997) Needs and empowerment in minority ethnic housing: some issues of definition and local strategy. Policy and Politics, 25(3), 285-298. Draws attention to the problematic nature of universal housing provision at a time of ethnic diversity and the potential response of ethnic managerialism - the recognition that markets and workforces are ethnically diverse. Harrison and Law discuss the issues involved in the development of ethnic managerialism at a local level.

Harrison, M. L. and Stevens, L. (1981) Ethnic minorities and the availability of mortgages. Social Policy Research Monograph. Leeds: Department of Social Policy and Administration. Focuses on the experiences of Asians in Leeds, suggesting that minority ethnic communities were disadvantaged in access to mortgage finance. Harrison, M. L. and Stevens, L. (1983) Down Market Lending: mortgages and the support scheme in Leeds. Centre for Urban and Regional Studies Occasional Paper No. 7 (New Series). Birmingham: University of Birmingham. As title. Haswell, N. and Owen, C. (1993) Unheard Voices - A Study of Housing Needs of the Asian and African Caribbean Communities of Inner City Nottingham. Nottingham: Nottingham City Council. Study of the housing outcomes, satisfaction and aspirations of minority ethnic communities in Nottingham. Hawes, D. and Perez, B. (1996) The Gypsy and the State. Bristol: The Policy Press. Addressing a generally under researched issue within the race and housing literature. Hawes and Perez focus on the experience of gypsies in Britain over the last forty years, including discussion of the provision of legal sites for travellers. They also seek to locate gypsies and travellers within the wider race debate. Hawtin, M. (1996) Assessing housing needs. In J. Percy-Smith (ed.), Needs Assessments in Public Policy. Buckingham: Open University Press, 98-116. Useful background to discussion of the housing needs of minority ethnic communities, including discussion of the weaknesses of the 1991 Census. Hawtin, M., Hughes, G. and Percy-Smith, J. (1994) Community Profiling: auditing social needs. Buckingham: Open University Press. Another discussion of the assessment of needs.

Henderson, J. and Karn, V. (1984) Race, class and the allocation of public housing in Britain. Urban Studies, 21, 115-128. Emphasises the continuing importance of (racialised) distinctions between the deserving and undeserving poor, in shaping the inequalities experienced by minority ethnic households in access to local authority housing. Gender and class are also identified as important factors. Henderson, J. and Karn, V. (1987) Race, Class and State Housing: inequality and the allocation of public housing in Britain. Aldershot: Gower. One of the most widely quoted race and housing studies. Henderson and Karn examine local authority housing allocations in Birmingham, highlighting the discrimination faced by minority ethnic households in gaining access to this sector. The impact upon minority ethnic communities of seemingly neutral policies, for example the refusal to accept owneroccupiers onto the waiting list, is

demonstrated. Further important themes within the study are the role of housing workers in stereotyping minority ethnic households as undesirable tenants, the significant influence of housing officer discretion, and interventions outside the formal allocations procedure. Hendessi, M., Brody, S. and Todd, M. (1995) Planning for Action: the Children Act and young homeless people: a black perspective. London: CHAR. Argues that the Children Act has failed to make a major impact upon the provision of housing and support services for young people from minority ethnic communities. The report notes that local authorities frequently fail to address the needs of this client group and fail to take account of the disproportionate levels of hidden homelessness, a common concern in discussion of the housing needs of minority ethnic communities. Recommendations for future action include sensitive service provision from mainstream and specialist organisations. Hesse, B., Rai, S., Bennett, C. and McGilchrist, P. (1992) Beneath the Surface: racial harassment. Aldershot: Avebury. Focuses upon racial harassment issues in the London Borough of Waltham Forest, highlighting the problems of multiple victimisation. The report provides strong criticism of local authority and police responses to the problems of racial harassment, drawing attention to the dismissive and hostile attitudes encountered by minority ethnic communities when complaints of harassment are made. Hickman, M. and Morgan, S. (1997) The Irish in Lewisham: a report of research undertaken for Lár Ionad na nGael/Lewisham Irish Community Centre. London: Lewisham Irish Community Centre. Highlights the poorer housing position of Irishheaded households in Lewisham in comparison with the average for all ethnic groups. Argues housing is the key socio-economic area in need of improvement for the Irish community. Hickman, M. and Walter, B. (1997) Discrimination and the Irish Community in Britain. London: CRE.

Includes a section on the housing outcomes of the Irish community. This highlights under-representation in owner-occupation, over-representation in the rented sectors and high rates of overcrowding. Further sections demonstrate ineffective monitoring of the housing experiences of the Irish community, the experiences of Irish housing associations and apparent attempts by local authorities to dissuade Irish households from registering housing need. Other issues addressed include the unwillingness of some agencies to recognise that the definition of racial harassment can include the experiences of the Irish community and the negative experiences of Irish travellers. Hill, C. (1967) How Colour Prejudiced is Britain? London: Panther. Includes a section on housing suggesting that this is the area of greatest social conflict. Hill argues that minority ethnic communities have been innovative in meeting their housing needs, despite resentment and prejudice from the white community towards their visibility at a time of housing shortage. Hill also includes discussion of: attitudes within the private rented sector; attitudes of house vendors and the effect on house prices of minority ethnic residence in an area; and more generally, attitudes to neighbours from minority ethnic communities and a discussion of the extent and impact of overcrowding. Hill suggests that spatial integration is unlikely to occur for several generations (p.112). Hill, C. (1970) Immigration and Integration: a study of the settlement of coloured minorities in Britain. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Contains a short section describing the post war housing experiences of minority ethnic communities up to the late 1960s. Hinds, M. (1987) Migrants: the invisible homeless: a report on migrants housing needs and circumstances in London. London: London Voluntary Service Council. Draws attention to the impact on housing disadvantage of the socio-economic deprivation experienced by work-permit holders, refugees and asylum seekers. This is exacerbated by the racism faced by these groups and their lack of inclusion in housing

strategies. A series of recommendations are made for addressing the issues identified within the report. Hines, V. (1998) How Black People Overcame Fifty Years of Repression in Britain 1945-1995. Volume One: 1945-1975. London: Zulu Publications. Includes an account of the barriers facing minority ethnic households in gaining accommodation and the self-help strategies developed to overcome these barriers. Hiro, D. (1973) Black British, White British. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Has separate sections addressing African Caribbean, Asian and White British communities cultures and attitudes, including sections on housing. Home, R. (1993) Planning aspects of the government consultation paper on gypsies. Journal of Planning and Environment Law, January, 13-18. Argues that gypsies will face further difficulties in their lifestyle due to changes in government policy. Home, R. (1995) Gypsies and development plans after circular 1/94. Journal of Planning and Environment Law, November, 1002-1006. Focuses on the way in which gypsies are being marginalised by local authority planners in the development plan process. Home Office (1981) Racial Attacks: report of a Home Office study. London: HMSO. As title. Home Office (1995) Racial Attacks and Harassment. Home Office Circular 30/1995. London: Home Office. Focusing on new legal powers.

Honeyford, R. (1996) Race relations and housing. The Salisbury Review, 15(1), 36-38. Strongly argues that the extent of discrimination and disadvantage experienced by minority ethnic communities in the housing market has been seriously exaggerated by the CRE and left wing academics. Honeyford adds that it is the majority white community who are numerically far more likely to be in poor quality housing. He adds that the black and minority ethnic housing movement should be considered a divisive element in society. Hounslow Community Relations Council (1986) The Nature and Extent of Racial Harassment in the London Borough of Hounslow. London: Hounslow Community Relations Council. General assessment of levels of racial harassment. Housing Corporation (1985) Race and Housing. Housing Corporation Circular HC 22/85. London: Housing Corporation. Key guidance for housing associations. Housing Corporation (1990) Promotion of Race Equality. Housing Corporation Circular HC 02/90. London: Housing Corporation. Guidance to housing associations following the extension of duties to promote race equality to the Housing Corporation through the 1988 Housing Act. Housing Corporation (1991) An Independent Future Black And Minority Ethnic Housing Association Strategy 1992 - 1996. London: Housing Corporation. Outlines the second Housing Corporation strategy for black and minority ethnic housing associations. Housing Corporation (1991) Commission for Racial Equality Race Relations Code of Practice in Rented Housing. Housing Corporation Circular HC 07/91. London: Housing Corporation. One of the key circulars outlining the responsibilities of housing associations. Housing Corporation (1995) Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Needs: an enabling framework. Consultation Paper. London: Housing Corporation.

Controversial, if not entirely politically unexpected, consultation paper leading to the policy document (Housing Corporation 1996) outlined below. Housing Corporation (1996) Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Needs: an enabling framework. London: Housing Corporation. A policy document which was widely criticised for ignoring the comments gained from the preceding consultation exercise, (also see Harrison et al 1996 above), by ending the ring fenced strategy for black and minority ethnic housing associations in favour of an enabling framework. The stated future strategy of the Corporation is outlined as responding to the housing needs of black and minority ethnic communities by a variety of approaches (p.5) which would include the work of black and minority ethnic housing associations, although these organisations could,

however, be seen as marginalised by other Corporation policies. Black Housing (see standing sources below) provides the most useful information on the practical effects of the Corporations policies in this area. Housing Corporation (1997) Lettings to Certain Persons from Abroad. Housing Corporation Circular R3 04/97. London: Housing Corporation. Outlines the effects of Part VI of the 1996 Housing Act in restricting the access of asylum seekers to local authority tenancies and nominations to housing associations and emphasising the lack of financial assistance available to asylum seekers in housing association tenancies. Housing Corporation (1997) Temporary Lettings to Asylum Seekers. Housing Corporation Circular R3 34/97. London: Housing Corporation. As title, to help local authorities discharge their remaining housing duties to asylum seekers. Housing Corporation (1998) Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Policy. London: Housing Corporation. Latest policy document covering mainstream and black and minority ethnic housing associations, revising the enabling framework (Housing Corporation 1996 above), and placing considerable emphasis on the role of mainstream housing associations rather than simply focusing on black and minority ethnic housing associations. The new policy has been welcomed as an improvement on the 1996 policy. However, it has been criticised for, amongst other factors, lacking clear targets for improved RSL performance. Nevertheless, Charlesworth in the July/September 1998 edition of Black Housing draws attention to the lack of parallel guidance, however flawed, for local authority performance (p.22). The new Housing Corporation policy offers, amongst other features, a commitment to consider new registrations of black and minority ethnic housing organisations. Housing Review (1988) Racial harassment. Edited papers from the Housing Centre Seminar on Racial Harassment in Housing, 6th November. 1987. Housing Review, 37(2), 71-77. As title.

The Housing Training Project (1980) Housing Work in Multi-racial Areas: a review of training approaches and resources. London: City University Housing Training Project. Emphasises the need for housing training to be undertaken in a context of strong equal opportunities policies and to be practice based and integrated with other general training. The publication also includes an annotated bibliography and guide to resources.

Howes, E. and Mullins, D. (1997) Finding a place the impact of locality on the housing experience of tenants from minority ethnic groups. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 189220. Places housing outcomes within a context of the growth in owner-occupation for all groups, the residualisation of social housing and the bureaucratisation of allocations systems on the basis of housing need, leading to the spatial concentration of poor households. Social polarisation and household structure are seen as key influences upon the continuing disadvantage in housing quality experienced by some minority ethnic communities, although the differences amongst minority ethnic communities are emphasised. Whilst existing spatial patterns, often reflecting historical access barriers, continue to restrict opportunities, Howes and Mullins argue that household choice does seem to be a discernible influence on household outcomes across tenures. Husain, M. S. (1975) The increase and distribution of New Commonwealth immigrants in Greater Nottingham. East Midland Geographer, VI, 105-129. Demographic and spatial guide. Husbands, C. T. (1987) The politics of housing and race: perspectives from Great Britain, the United States and France. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow, 31-71. Examining the role of politics in race and housing debates through the use of international comparisons and arguing that the political climate at that time made initiatives to tackle housing inequality for minority ethnic households unlikely. Huttman, E. D., Blauw, W. and Saltman, J. (eds.) (1991) Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. Edited collection including material on Britain and conceptual material concerning segregation.

Huttman, E. D. (1991) Housing segregation in Western Europe: an introduction. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 21-42. Includes references to Britain outlining the available housing stock, explanations for segregation and policies for dealing with segregation. Huttman, E. D. (1991) Subsidised housing segregation in Western Europe: stigma and segregation. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 215-235. Discusses access problems to social housing and the stigmatisation of its use.

Huttman, E. D. (1991) Summary and future trends. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 403-421. Summary of edited collection and plea for government action in Western Europe to ensure that levels of segregation are kept low. Huxley, E. (1964) Back Street New Worlds: a look at immigrants in Britain. London: Chatto and Windus. Based on original articles for Punch magazine and including qualitative discussion of housing experiences. Hyman, M. (1989) Sites for Travellers: a study in five London boroughs. London: London Race and Housing Unit. Argues that changes to travellers lifestyles have led to an increasing demand for permanent caravan sites. The report also identifies the need to share best practice amongst local authorities and for site managers to be incorporated in housing management career structures. Hyndman, S. J. (1990) Housing and Health Amongst British Bengalis in Tower Hamlets. Research Paper Number Three. London: Department of Geography, Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London. Links poor housing with poor health in the Bengali community. Ineichen, B. (1978) Ethnic variation in the housing decisions of young married couples in Bristol, England. Plural Societies, IX(4), 23-34. As title. Institute of Housings Race and Housing Working Party (1985) Race and Housing: monitoring. Professional Practice Series - No. 2. London: Institute of Housing. Brief guide to best practice. Institute of Housings Race and Housing Working Party (1985) Race and Housing: consultation. Professional Practice Series No. 3. London: Institute of Housing.

Brief guide to best practice stressing the importance of consulting widely, rather than limiting consultation to establishment groups. Institute of Housings Race and Housing Working Party (1986) Race and housing: allocations. Professional Practice Series No. 6. London: Institute of Housing. As title. Inter-departmental Racial Attacks Group (1989) The Response to Racial Attacks and Harassment: guidance for statutory agencies. London: Home Office. Emphasises the potential for greater co-operation between the police and housing agencies. Guidance is provided on the development of racial harassment policies, including the need to record the ethnic origin of all tenants. Inter-departmental Racial Attacks Group (1991) The Response to Racial Attacks: sustaining the momentum. London: Home Office. Follow up report to the RAG 1989 publication identifying the extent to which it had been acted upon, highlighting examples of best practice and identifying further initiatives to promote best practice. Irish in Islington Project (1984) Report on the Housing Situation of Irish born People. London: Irish in Britain Representation Group. Argues for the inclusion of the Irish community within strategies targeted upon meeting the housing needs of minority ethnic communities. The report includes a profile of the housing outcomes of the Irish community. Jackson, P. (ed.) (1987) Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin. Edited collection with authors referred to individually in this bibliography. Jackson, P. (1987) The idea of race and the geography of racism. In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 3-21. Argues that the spatial sociology approach of mapping segregation has been a limited and descriptive model. Jackson also criticises many geographical approaches

as being influenced by the desirability of minority ethnic assimilation with the white community. Jackson points to the spatial dimension of racism including the example of racial harassment. He argues for a structuralist interpretation of racism supported by an analysis of racism in specific areas and at particular times. Jackson, P. and Smith, S. J. (1981) Introduction. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 1-18. Included in their introduction to the edited volume is an examination of the relationship between social interaction, social structure and spatial segregation. Jackson, P. and Smith, S. J. (eds.) (1981) Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press. Edited collection with authors chapters referred to individually within this bibliography. Jacobs, S. (1985) Race, empire and the welfare state: council housing and racism. Critical Social Policy, 13, 6-28. Argues that racism is an integral part of the welfare state. Jacobs notes the disadvantage of minority ethnic households within local authority housing and the difficulties that this causes for the political left who wish to condemn racism, whilst continuing to support this sector. He adds that minority ethnic communities have been pathologised because of their occupation of poor quality housing. Jacobs emphasises that if decentralisation is to offer an answer to the racism of local authority housing, then it must be based upon the empowerment of minority ethnic communities, and a recognition of the reality of white racism. James, W. (1993) Migration, racism and identity formation: the Caribbean experience in Britain. In W. James and C. Harris (eds.), Inside Babylon: the Caribbean diaspora in Britain. London: Verso, 231287. Includes reference to spatial concentration and dispersal.

James, W. and Harris, C. (eds.) (1993) Inside Babylon: the Caribbean diaspora in Britain. London: Verso. Only small sections on housing, but important for a passionate defence of the right of minority ethnic households to choose to concentrate in particular neighbourhoods. Jayaweera, H. (1993) Racial disadvantage and ethnic identity: the experiences of Afro-Caribbean women in a British city. New Community, 19(3), 383-406. Discussion of neighbourhood and identity. Jeffers, S. and Hoggett, P. (1995) Like counting deckchairs on the Titanic: a study of institutional racism and housing allocations in Haringey and Lambeth. Housing Studies, 10(3), 325-344. Important article identifying the continuation of inequalities in access to housing for minority ethnic communities, despite allocations governed by comprehensive race equality policies and made by officers from minority ethnic communities. The study is particularly important for highlighting the processes which, coupled with pressure of work and attitudes to consumers, perpetuate housing inequalities. Jeffery, J. and Seager, R. with Williams, J. and Julienne, J. (1993) Housing Black and Minority Ethnic Elders. London: FBHO. Draws attention to the lack of provision by local authorities and housing associations for the specific housing needs of black and minority ethnic communities. Most of the progress since the Age Concern/Help the Aged Housing Trust report (1984, see above) appeared to be as a result of initiatives by black and minority ethnic housing associations. A series of profiles of projects targeted upon black and minority ethnic communities is included in the report. Jeffery, J. and Seagar, R. (1995) All Together Now: involving black tenants in housing management. Salford: TPAS. As title.

Jeffery, P. (1976) Migrants and Refugees: Muslim and Christian Pakistani families in Bristol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Includes brief discussion of housing issues. Jesson, J. (1990) Contract compliance in the construction industry: a comparative view. New Community, 17(1), 59-69. Focusing on comparative practices in the United States and in Britain. John, A. (1972) Race in the Inner City. London: Runnymede Trust. Highlighting problems of homelessness amongst African Caribbean young people.

Johnson, M. R. D. (1987) Housing as a process of racial discrimination. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Studies in Housing 2. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, 159-181. Argues that housing does not simply reflect other inequalities in life chances, but also creates its own inequalities in other spheres of life. Johnson discusses the role of housing as a commodity, and the relatively poor position of minority ethnic households seeking to benefit from commodification, noting employment issues. Johnson, M. R. D. with Powell, D., Owen, D. and Tomlins, R. (1998) Minority Housing and Social Care Needs in Warwickshire: proposals for action. A Report for the Friendship Group. Coventry: University of Warwick. Reports the results of research funded by the Housing Corporation focusing on the three central urban local authority districts of Warwickshire. It highlights the lack of effective ethnic monitoring procedures in these areas, the need to support black and minority ethnic housing associations and, more generally, to make the minority ethnic communities in the region aware of the housing options available. The need for local authorities to refer more explicitly to the housing needs of minority ethnic communities and to recognise the growing need for sheltered and frail elderly accommodation is emphasised. In addition, there was clearly a need to target care and repair and low cost home ownership schemes on minority ethnic communities. The report also emphasises the link between housing and wider social inequalities. Johnson, M. R. D. and Ward, R. (1985) Five Year Review of Birmingham Inner City Partnership. London: Department of the Environment/Aston University Management Centre. Study of the operation of inner-city partnership funding with a primary focus on economic and social regeneration. The report discusses the degree to which minority ethnic groups were able to benefit from this urban renewal programme with particular reference to minority ethnic access to renovation grants.

Johnston, R. J. (1981) Some technical issues in the comparative study of residential segregation. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 6(2), 246-250. As title. Joly, D. (1988) Refugees from Vietnam in Birmingham: community, voluntary agency and the role of local authorities. Research Paper in Ethnic Relations No. 9. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Refers to housing issues, including the introduction and abandonment of dispersal policies and the local authority and housing association response to the needs of Vietnamese refugees in Birmingham. In particular, Joly notes the greater bureaucratic obstacles to obtaining local authority, in comparison to housing association, accommodation. Joly, D. (1995) Britannias Crescent: making a place for Muslims in British society. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Avebury. Brief reference to housing issues. Joly, D. (1996) Haven or hell?: asylum policies and refugees in Europe. Migration, Minorities and Citizenship Series. London: Macmillan. Includes reference to housing issues. Jones, A. (1994) The Numbers Game: black and minority ethnic elders and sheltered accommodation. Oxford: Anchor Housing Trust. Emphasises that housing provision for minority ethnic elders has been particularly neglected by local authorities and housing associations. This study focuses on the work of the four largest housing association providers of sheltered accommodation and includes a strong theme that there was not simply lack of knowledge of the location of schemes, but also lack of knowledge of housing associations and, indeed, sheltered housing. More generally there were language problems, affordability issues, fear of isolation and concern regarding the design and appropriateness of accommodation. The development of provision by black and minority ethnic housing associations, as well as improved communication and targeting by mainstream associations, were seen as important factors in increasing access to sheltered

housing. Health issues were the most common reason for applying to sheltered accommodation amongst minority ethnic households. Minority ethnic tenants were generally supportive of schemes of mixed ethnic groups, although the response from white tenants was less favourable. One important recommendation emerging from the report is that it is the quality of accommodation provided, rather than simply the numbers of minority ethnic households housed, which should be important to housing providers. Jones, A. (1996) Making Monitoring Work: a guide to the successful implementation of ethnic record keeping and monitoring systems for service delivery. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. General guide of relevance to housing professionals. Jones, H. R. and Davenport, M. (1972) The Pakistani community in Dundee: a study of its growth and demographic structure. Scottish Geographical Magazine, 88, 74-85. As title. Jones, P. N. (1967) The Segregation of Immigrant Communities in the City of Birmingham. Occasional Papers No. 7. Hull: University of Hull, Dept of Geography. As title. Jones, P. N. (1970) Some aspects of the changing distribution of coloured immigrants in Birmingham, 1961-66. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 50, 199-219. As title. Jones, P. N. (1976) Coloured minorities in Birmingham, England. Annals, Associations of American Geographers, 66, 89-103. As title.

Jones, P. N. (1977) Reply to ethnic segregation in British cities. Annals, Associations of American Geographers, 67, 306. As title. Jones, P. N. (1978) The distribution and diffusion of the coloured population in England and Wales, 196171. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (New Series), 3, 515-533. As title. Jones, P. N. (1979) Ethnic areas in British cities. In D. T. Herbert and D. M. Smith (eds.), Social Problems and the City: geographical perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 158-185 Outlines the spatial concentration of the minority ethnic community and the factors of choice and the factors of constraint which have affected these outcomes, before concluding that the former have been more influential. Jones includes a case study of spatial patterns in Birmingham, social problems and policies and policy responses at a local and national level. Jones, P. R. (1982) Vietnamese Refugees: a study of their reception and resettlement in the United Kingdom. Research and Planning Unit Paper 13. London: Home Office. Refers to housing issues, including dispersal policies Jones, P. R. (1983) Vietnamese refugees in the UK: the reception programme. New Community, X(3), 444453. Includes reference to the housing difficulties of Vietnamese refugees and the role of local authorities and housing associations. Jones, T. (1996) Britains Ethnic Minorities. London: PSI. Includes a chapter on housing outcomes. Jones, T. P. (1983) Residential segregation and ethnic autonomy. New Community, XI(1/2), 10-22. Argues, with particular reference to Bradford, that minority ethnic households were becoming increasingly spatially segregated. Suggests that household choice

is not a sufficient explanation for this process and must be accompanied by an examination of the benefits accruing to other sectors in society as a result of those household choices. Jones, T. P. and McEvoy, D. (1978) Race and space in cloud cuckoo land. Area, 10(3), 162-166. Emphasises the high levels of spatial concentration of minority ethnic communities when measured at enumeration district level and the problems that white reactions create for race relations. Jones, T. P. and McEvoy, D. (1979) Reply to Peach. Area, 11(1), 84-85. Part of debate following Area (1978) above, and emphasising the importance of the constraints on the housing choices of minority ethnic households.

Jones, T. P. and McEvoy, D. (1979) Reply to Peach. Area, 11(3), 222-223. Part of debate following Area (1978) above, and reasserting the view that the race and housing debate should be placing greater emphasis on the constraints on minority ethnic housing outcomes. Joseph, I. (1990) The Refugee Community in Waltham Forest: scale and extent of needs. London: London Borough of Waltham Forest. Includes discussion of the implications for housing services. Judge, T. (1977/78) The problems of difficult estates. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 45-48. Discussion of GLC problem estates, including reference to the racial tensions present in some cases. Julienne, L. and Straker, L. (1998) Best Value in Partnerships - Social Housing Landlords Working Together. London: FBHO. Focuses on the questionnaire responses of 36 large housing associations and 42 small housing associations, backed up by a number of interviews with senior officers from associations. Julienne and Straker emphasise that partnerships with small housing associations play a crucial role in enabling larger organisations to maintain contacts with the communities which they are meant to service and to meet the diversity of housing needs in the local population. Whilst they also identify the benefits for smaller organisations, particularly in gaining access to Housing Corporation funding, they point to the difficulties involved in effective partnership work and suggest possible solutions to these problems. The report also notes that the commitment of large housing associations to working with small black and minority ethnic associations waned after the publication of the Housing Corporations (1996 see above) Enabling Framework. Karn, V. (1967) A note on Race, Community and Conflict: a study of Sparkbrook. Race, 9(1), 100-104. Argues that Rex and Moore (1967 below) disproportionately concentrate upon pathological forms of minority ethnic owner-occupation.

Karn, V. (1969) Property values amongst Indians and Pakistanis in a Yorkshire Town. Race, X, 269-284. As title. Karn, V. (1972/73) Housing. New Community, II(1), 9095. Focuses on the competing options for Ugandan Asians to move to areas with available jobs or with available accommodation. The article also discusses the problems facing minority ethnic households because of disproportionate residence in the furnished rented sector and notes the links between allocations policies in Liverpool and riots within the Liverpool 8 area. The article concludes with a note of the harassment of African Caribbean families on local authority estates. Karn, V. (1976) Priorities for Local Authority Mortgage Lending: a case study of Birmingham. Birmingham: CURS. Draws attention to the inequalities facing minority ethnic households in gaining access to mortgages from building societies. Karn, V. (1977) The housing of ethnic minorities in Britain. Journal of CREDOC, Summer. As title. Karn, V. (1977) The Impact of Housing Finance on Low Income Owner Occupation. Working Paper No. 55. Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, University of Birmingham. As title. Karn, V. (1977/78) The financing of owner-occupation and its impact on ethnic minorities. New Community, 6(1/2), 49-63. Draws attention to an increasing concentration of minority ethnic households at the bottom of the owner-occupied market and to the need for more advantageous finance systems to prevent households being marginalised, and to allow them to improve their properties and, hence, the wider built environment.

Karn, V. 1979: Low income owner-occupation and the inner city. In C. Jones (ed.), Urban Deprivation in the Inner City, London: Croom Helm, 160-190. Includes discussion of the ethnicity of low income owner-occupiers. Karn, V. (1983) Race and housing in Britain: the role of the major institutions. In N. Glazer and K. Young (eds.), Ethnic Pluralism and Public Policy. London: Heinemann, 162-183. Includes discussion of the limits of the law in tackling racial inequality and a conceptualisation of racial discrimination on the basis of Wellmans definition that it is culturally sanctioned, rational responses to struggles over scarce resources (p.4). Karn highlights the similar interests of the local authority sector and the dominant tenure of owneroccupation, noting the discretion available to officers within both systems, who in the absence of strong professional identities and minority ethnic staff share everyday attitudes to race. Karn argues that risk taking is not valued in either sector since neither building societies or the social rented sector seek profit with the consequence that safe decisions are made with respect to mortgage lending and housing allocations. In these circumstances minority ethnic households are perceived as a relatively high risk due to stereotypes of the values, behaviour and respectability of households, properties and areas and the fear of a white backlash where minority ethnic households are seen to gain resources. Karn, V. (1991) Targeting support to those with special needs. Race and housing: current and potential responses. In A. Norton and K. Novy (eds.), Low Income Housing in Britain and Germany. London: Anglo-German Foundation, 326-336. Overview of issues, including policy responses to racial inequalities in housing and discussion of the effectiveness of anti-discrimination legislation and monitoring. Karn notes a greater interest amongst social housing providers in race equality issues, although she expresses concern regarding the trend to switch resources from the local authority to the housing association sector, notably because of fears

regarding the performance of suburban housing associations and the reduction in public subsidy. Karn, V. (ed.) (1997) Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO. Edited collection from the 1991 Census, chapters referred to individually in this bibliography. Karn, V. (1997) Ethnic penalties and racial discrimination in education, employment and housing: conclusions and policy implications. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 265290. Notes the difficulties of making any generalisations concerning inequality in the housing market due to a range of spatial and household factors, including housing choices. Nevertheless, Karn argues that the differences recorded between ethnic groups are sufficient to conclude that ethnic penalties in access to housing exist. As a broad generalisation, minority ethnic households remain disproportionately concentrated in poor quality housing and remain at risk of racial harassment, although there are significant differences between minority ethnic communities. A series of policy proposals are recommended, focusing upon the legal framework for racial equality. Karn, V. and Dale, A. (1998) Minority Ethnic Housing Needs in Manchester: first report. Manchester: North British Housing Association. Argues that black and minority ethnic housing associations should be able to target their housing resources on one or more minority ethnic communities. The report draws attention to the obstacles to this policy aim which are presented by Housing Corporation policies and local authority practices of nominating large numbers of white households to black and minority ethnic housing associations. Karn, V. and Kemeny, J. (1981) House Purchase in Inner Birmingham 1975/79: second interim report of the Inner City Home Ownership Project. Working Paper

83. Birmingham: Centre for Urban Studies, University of Birmingham. As title.

and

Regional

Karn, V. and Lucas, J. with Steele, A., Stefak, P. and Todd, S. (1996) Home-owners and Clearance: an evaluation of rebuilding grants. London: HMSO. Includes brief discussion of the attitudes of minority ethnic communities, and in particular the opposition of Asian households towards clearance schemes because of concern regarding the dislocation of community, the fear of racial harassment away from the estate. The report takes into account the possible solution offered by Rebuilding Grants. Karn, V., Dale, A. and Ratcliffe, P. (1997) Introduction: using the 1991 Census to study ethnicity. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, xi-xxix. Introduces the edited volume and suggests useful amendments to the 1991 Census questions which could be incorporated in the 2001 Census. Karn, V., Kemeny, J. and Williams, P. (1981) Polarisation in the Inner Birmingham Housing Market, 1972-80: first interim report of the Inner City Home Ownership Project. Working Paper 81. Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, University of Birmingham. As title. Karn, V., Kemeny, J. and Williams, P. (1985) Home Ownership in the Inner City: salvation or despair? Aldershot: Gower. Examines the experience of inner city home ownership using case studies of Birmingham and Liverpool. Despite occupation of a superficially privileged tenure, the authors suggest that purchasers of properties in these areas are being marginalised in relatively high cost, low quality properties. They emphasise that the steps on the housing ladder are getting bigger as the value of these properties is rising more slowly than properties outside the inner city. They discuss the implications for inner city regeneration of possible changes to the housing

aspirations of Pakistani households and Indian households who at the time of the study strongly valued owner-occupation and were not interested in gaining accommodation from the local authority sector. Minority ethnic households were more likely than white households to have used informal sources to purchase accommodation, seemingly reflecting a strategy to avoid potential discrimination by exchange professionals such as estate agents and often used unconventional lending sources for mortgages including short-term loans from banks prior to their widespread involvement in conventional mortgage lending. Karn, V., Kemeny, J. and Williams, P. (1986) Low income home ownership in the inner city. In P. Booth and P. Crook (eds.), Low Cost Home Ownership. Aldershot: Gower, 149-169. Includes references to the experiences of Asian communities in particular, suggesting that building societies were paying more attention to household characteristics such as race than to the quality of the property. Karn, V. and Phillips, D. (1998) Race and ethnicity in housing: a diversity of experience. In T. Blackstone, B. Parekh and P. Sanders (eds.), Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda. London: Routledge, 128-157. Good overview of the literature. Notes the decline in the extent of housing research in the 1990s and the difficulties of discussing race equality in relation to housing, given the competing definitions of equality of opportunity and equality of outcome, and the difficulties involved in measuring need across tenures. Progress in the housing market is noted, alongside continuing disadvantage and discrimination, highlighting the diversity of experiences hidden by generalisations about minority ethnic communities. Karn and Phillips emphasise the need to target measures specifically upon minority ethnic communities in order to address housing inequalities.

Karn, V., La Tourelle, D., Symes, M. and Todd, M. (1996) Housing Design and Management for Ethnic Minorities. Occasional Paper in Architecture and Urban Design No. 5. Manchester: School of Architecture, University of Manchester. Compares the objectives and approaches of black and minority ethnic housing associations, noting their increasing formalisation and the varying support between Housing Corporation regions for associations. The report argues that black and minority ethnic housing associations not only play a crucial role in meeting the housing needs of minority ethnic communities, but also in meeting wider objectives of community empowerment. Kashyap, P. 1994: Black women and housing. In R. Gilroy and R. Woods (eds.), Housing Women. London: Routledge, 101-126. Includes discussion of the migration history of women from British minority ethnic communities and the factors which have, and continue to, affect access to housing, including immigration legislation, national housing policies, and access to different tenures. The article argues for greater sensitivity to the specific needs of women from minority ethnic communities and their involvement within housing provision. Kearns A. (1990) Voluntarism, Management and Accountability. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow. Includes notes on the ethnicity of housing association committee members. Kearsley, G. W. and Srivastava, S. R. (1974) The spatial evolution of Glasgows Asian community. Scottish Geographical Magazine, 90, 110-124. As title. Keith, M. and Cross, M. (1993) Racism and the postmodern city. In M. Cross and M. Keith (eds.), Racism, the City and the State. London: Routledge, 130. Introduces the individual chapters in the text, including a conceptual view of the place of race within the city.

Kelly, D. and Rosewarne, A. (nd) Tenants Tackle Racism: an account of a series of experimental workshops held in Stepney - 1984/5. London: Dame Colet House Community Centre, Limehouse Fields Tenants Association, Tower Hamlets Tenants Federation. Includes an overview of housing in Tower Hamlets, race attacks in the area and the edited proceedings of a series of tenants workshops. The workshops sought to develop strategies for the greater participation of minority ethnic households in tenants groups and to address the specific problems of minority ethnic tenants. Kendall, S. (1997) Sites of resistance: places on the margin - the traveller homeplace. In T. Acton (ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, 70-89. Discussion of travellers experiences within the context of space and place.

Kemeny, J. with Karn, V. and Williams, P. (1980) Inner City Home Ownership Project: interim report. Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, University of Birmingham. As title. Kenrick, D. and Bakewell, S. (1990) On the Verge: the gypsies of England. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. Discussion of nomadic lifestyles and settlement policies. The publication also locates gypsies within the wider race literature. Kensington and Chelsea Race and Housing Action Group (1989) Behind the Facade: migrant workers and the private rented sector in Kensington and Chelsea. London: Kensington and Chelsea Race and Housing Action Group. Notes the barriers to accessing local authority accommodation and the concentration of migrant workers in Houses in Multiple Occupation with high levels of landlord harassment. A number of recommendations are made concerning tackling racial discrimination and facilitating the access of migrant workers to social housing resources. Khan, V. S. (1976) Pakistanis in Britain: perceptions of a population. New Community, V(3), 222-229. Some reference to issues of voluntary segregation. Khan, V. S. (1977) The Pakistanis: Mirpuri villages at home in Bradford. In J. L. Watson (ed.), Between Two Cultures: migrants and minorities in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell. Usually cited as part of the choice school of race and housing literature. Kilpatrick, A. (1997) Discrimination London: Ardens Housing Library. Legal guide.

in

Housing.

King, R. and King, P. (1977) The spatial evolution of the Italian community in Bedford. East Midlands Geographer, 6, 343. One of the few articles focusing on the Italian community. Charts their movement away from the innercity.

King, R. (1978) Work and residence patterns of Italian immigrants in Great Britain. International Migration, 16, 74-82. As title. Kosmin, B. A. and de Lange, D. (1980) Conflicting urban ideologies: Londons New Towns and the Metropolitan preference of Londons Jews. The London Journal, 6, 162-175. As title. Kosmin, B. A. and Grizzard, N. (1975) Jews in an Inner London Borough. London: Board of Deputies of British Jews. As title. Kosmin, B. A., Levy, C. and Wigodsky, P. (1981) The Social Demography of Redbridge Jewry. London: Board of Deputies of British Jews. As title. Krausz, E. (1968) The Edgware Survey: demographic results. Jewish Journal of Sociology, 10, 83-100. As title. Krausz, E. (1971) Ethnic Minorities in Britain. London: MacGibbon and Kee. Includes an outline of housing outcomes suggesting that housing choice might be an even more influential explanation than housing constraints. Labour Housing Group (1989) An Anti-Racist Housing Policy. Newcastle: Labour Housing Group. As title. Lake, C. (1989) Rosehill: portraits from a Midlands City. London: Bloomsbury. Book of short stories providing a link to discussion of community, (see Revill 1993 below). Lakey, J. (1997) Neighbourhoods and housing. In T. Modood, R. Berthoud, et al (eds.), Ethnic Minorities in Britain: diversity and disadvantage. The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities. London: PSI, 184-223.

Lakey emphasises that the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities remain poorer than those of the white community. She notes the spatial concentration of minority ethnic households in Britain, though these are not on the American scale, and suggests that spatial outcomes were often a result of choice. Continuing differences in tenure outcomes by ethnic group are also observed, although they conceal a consistent aspiration for owneroccupation amongst all ethnic groups, albeit with a somewhat lower figure for Bangladeshi households. Whilst minority ethnic households continue to be disproportionately concentrated in poor quality accommodation, seemingly a reflection of constraints, there were also indications of change. For example, overcrowding levels appeared to be decreasing for all ethnic groups and Indian and African Asian households appear to have experienced great gains in the quality of owner-occupation. Lambert, C. (1976) Building Societies, Surveyors and the Older Areas in Birmingham. Working Paper No. 38. Birmingham: CURS University of Birmingham. Draws attention to inequalities facing minority ethnic households in gaining access to mortgages from building societies. Lambert, J. R. and Filkin, C. (1971) Race relations research: some issues of approach and application. Race, XII(3), 329-335. Lambert and Filkin note the difficulties of conducting the research requested by the Central Housing Advisory Committee Report (1969 above) to inform the discussion concerning the merits of dispersal policies. They outline the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches to race and housing research including a short, but significant, discussion of the importance of work by Rex and Moore (1967 below). Lambert, J., Paris, C. and Blackaby, B. (1978) Housing Policy and the State: allocation, access and control. London: Macmillan. Derived from research undertaken in Birmingham in the early 1970s. Lambert et al present a general study of the allocations process at Birmingham City Council from the perspective of work undertaken at a housing associations housing advice centre. This includes a

discussion of the City Councils policy of dispersing minority ethnic households throughout the city and, more generally, notes discriminatory attitudes against minority ethnic households and general discrimination against those considered to be low class (p.56). The authors also present case studies of residents action in redevelopment areas, the experience of properties saved from clearance and targeted for improvement, and participation in an action area, including reference to race issues. Within the course of the arguments there is a discussion of the usefulness of the concept of housing classes and urban managerialism. Lambert et al suggest that officers and members sought to mould debate through: defining problems as technical issues dependent upon professional expertise; failing to regard customers as people with individual rights; and exercising scope for discretion only within established conventions. In general, Lambert et al argue that there was a culture of acceptance of the available resources, as determined by the interests of capital. Lane, D. (1977/78) Chairmans introduction. Community, VI(1 and 2), 1-3. Outlines the CREs approach to housing issues.

New

Law, I. (1995) Sikh Elderly in Leeds: a needs assessment. Race and Public Policy Research Unit Paper, Leeds: University of Leeds. As title. Law, I. (1996) Racism, Ethnicity and Social Policy. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Includes a chapter offering a useful introduction to race and housing. Law, I., Davies, J., Phillips, D. and Harrison, M. (1996) Equity and Difference: racial and ethnic inequalities in housing needs and housing investment in Leeds. Leeds: University of Leeds. This report, amongst other features, highlights some indication of suburbanisation for particular minority ethnic groups alongside increasing concentration for others and, overall, the continuing spatial concentration of minority ethnic communities. It also draws attention to the formation of smaller family

units and concern that discrimination might be occurring in access to local authority housing. The inequitable impact on minority ethnic households of improvement programmes for local authority housing is also noted. Lawrence, D. (1974) Black Migrants, White Natives: a study of race relations in Nottingham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Notes that minority ethnic communities were concentrated in the areas of the poorest quality housing, although levels of housing satisfaction were greater amongst the minority ethnic population than amongst the majority ethnic population. The study also highlights that levels of owner-occupation amongst the minority ethnic population were higher than might have been predicted had the research of Rex and Moore (1967 below) been used as a model. Nevertheless, minority ethnic households perceived discrimination in access to the owner-occupied sector and the local authority sector, where they were disproportionately under-represented. Lee, T. R. (1973) Ethnic and social class factors in residential segregation: some implications for dispersal. Environment and Planning, V, 477-490. As title. Lee, T. R. (1973) Immigrants in London: trends in distribution and concentration 1961-1971. New Community, II(2), 145-158. Outline of residential patterns by ethnicity. Lee, T. R. (1977) Race and Residence: the concentration and dispersal of immigrants in London. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Study of residential segregation including trends in the housing market, noting the important role played by discrimination in shaping segregation. Lee includes a discussion of the merits of dispersal policy, concluding that even were such a policy to be pursued, it could only operate within the constraints of social class and would threaten community ties. Lee concludes that tackling urban deprivation and housing shortages are more effective social policy responses to race issues.

Lee, T. R. (1978) Race, space and scale. Area, 10(5), 365-367. Responds to Jones and McEvoy (1978 above) and agrees in part with their analysis, in particular that the extent of spatial segregation in Britain has been underestimated. Lee points to Rose et al (1969 below) as being particularly misleading in this respect. Leech, K. (1993) Race, Class and Homelessness in Britain and the USA: the Founders Lecture given at the Catholic Housing Aid Society on 22nd June 1993. London: CHAS. As title. Leeds CRC (1986) Racial Harassment in Leeds 19851986: a report on the independent commission of enquiry into racial harassment. Leeds: Leeds CRC. Research focusing upon South Leeds and revealing levels of racial harassment running at over ten times greater than previously thought. Leeds CRC (nd) Race and Housing Associations. Leeds: Leeds CRC. Emphasises that there was a significant gap between the public commitment of the housing association movement to address race equality issues and associations practical action in Leeds. Leicester City Council (1993) Seminar on African Caribbean Housing needs: perspectives for change. Leicester: Leicester City Council. Report of proceedings, including contributions from the Federation of Black Housing Organisations and National Federation of Housing Associations.

Lemos, G. (1993) Interviewing Perpetrators of Racial Harassment: a guide for housing managers. London: Lemos Associates. Discussion of racial harassment issues followed by outline of best practice. Lemos, G. (1997) Safe as Houses: a guide to supporting people experiencing racial harassment in housing. London: Lemos Associates. Handbook to support victims of racial harassment. Lemos, G. and Soares, T. (1998) Roots Regained: housing plus and added value services in black and minority ethnic housing associations. Birmingham: People for Action. Outlines the clash between black and minority ethnic housing associations with their community objectives and the Housing Corporations historic reluctance to permit funding to extend beyond bricks and mortar issues. Lemos and Soares highlight the change in attitudes at the Corporation, which has led to the promotion of wider community policies through housing plus initiatives, and outline a number of the ways in which black and minority ethnic communities provide housing plus services. The report concludes with recommendations for the Housing Corporation, local authorities and health services, charitable and other funders, and black and minority ethnic housing associations. Lewis, R. (1988) Anti-racism: a mania exposed. London: Quartet Books. Includes passing reference to housing issues arguing that the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities should be seen as a success story and that the convention of inequality and disadvantage is a reflection of the CREs capacity for finding a problem in every solution (p.107). Lewis argues that racism, where it does exist in bureaucracies, can be most effectively tackled by greater reliance on the free market. Liverpool Black Caucus (1986) The Racial Politics of Militant in Liverpool. Liverpool and London: Merseyside Area Profile Group and Runnymede Trust. Contains a strong housing theme.

Lloyd, C. (1995) The Irish Community in Britain: discrimination, disadvantage and racism: an annotated bibliography. London: University of North London Press. Brief reference to housing issues. Lloyd, R. (1992) London Housing Associations: action against racial harassment. Housing Research Paper No. 1. London: University of Westminster. Publication of student project for professional examination, drawing attention to the need for further action to effectively tackle racial harassment. Local Authority Housing and Racial Equality Working Party (1987) Racial Harassment. London: Association of Metropolitan Authorities. First of a series of working party reports. Draws attention to the importance of tackling racial harassment issues and offering advice on good practice and legal positions. Local Authority Housing and Racial Equality Working Party (1988) Homelessness. London: Association of Metropolitan Authorities. Argues that local authorities should be: offering more sensitive interpretations of individual circumstance when determining homelessness status; removing the use of bed and breakfast accommodation and temporary accommodation away from the households normal area (unless there are specific reasons for protection); and seeking staff with a range of different skills, including language skills. The report also argues that homeless applicants should be provided with comprehensive information on rights and services and should not be steered towards poor quality properties. The report promotes ethnic monitoring and, more generally, work with the voluntary sector. Local Authority Housing and Racial Equality Working Party (1988) Allocations. London: Association of Metropolitan Authorities. Recommendations include: dropping all restrictions on owner-occupiers residential qualification; treating overseas separated families equally with separated families already in the UK; avoiding sons and daughters allocations policies; and ending the

practice of steering applicants from particular housing channels to particular properties. The report emphasises that allocations should not be influenced by non housing needs assessments, such as lifestyle and housekeeping standards. Local Authority Housing and Racial Equality Working Party (1988) Local Housing Strategies. London: Association of Metropolitan Authorities. Argues that race issues should be incorporated in local authority housing strategies where minority ethnic households are significantly represented within the local population. It is recognised that this will involve developing links with minority ethnic communities, including owner-occupiers. Local Government Management Board (1991) Positive Action: resource pack for trainers, personnel officers and managers. Luton: LGMB. Touches in passing on housing issues. Local Government Management Board/Institute of Local Government Studies (1991) Quality and Equality: service to the whole community: the relationship between service quality and equal opportunities. Luton: LGMB. As title. Local Government Ombudsman (1993) Report on Investigation Nos. 91/A/1759, 91/A/1760 and 91/A/1762 against London Borough of Tower Hamlets. London: Commission for Local Administration in England. Holds that Tower Hamlets was at fault in the allocation of properties to households experiencing racial harassment and also in the way in which the borough responded to complaints of racial harassment.

Lomas, G. M. G. (1977/78) Analysis of census data on housing. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 8-17. Notes that the 1971 Census indicates the continuing importance of the private rented market for minority ethnic households, although Lomas argues that a housing ladder did offer the opportunity for minority ethnic households to achieve better accommodation. Lomas, G. M. G. and Monck, E. M. (1975) The Coloured Population of Great Britain: a comparative study of coloured households in four county boroughs. London: Runnymede Trust. As title. London Against Racism in Housing (1988) Anti-racism and the Private Sector. London: LARH. As title. London Borough of Islington (1977) Allocation of Islington Housing to Ethnic Minorities. Research Report No. 12. London: London Borough of Islington. As title. London Borough of Lewisham (1975) An Examination of Racial Equity in Points Scheme Housing Allocations. Research and Information Report. London: London Borough of Lewisham. As title. London Housing Research Group 1978: Race and Local Authority Housing: using ethnic records. London: London Housing Research Group. As title. London Housing Research Group (1978) Research on Race and Housing: a research note by the LHRG Working Party on Race and Housing. London: London Housing Research Group. As title. London Housing Research Group (1981) Racial Harassment on Local Authority Housing Estates: a report prepared by the London Race and Housing Forum. London: Commission for Racial Equality. As title.

London Housing Unit (nd) Guidelines for Dealing with Racial and Sexual Harassment in Temporary Accommodation. London: London Housing Unit. Advises on best practice. London Irish Womens Centre (1996) Roots and Realities: a profile of Irish women in London in the 1990s. London: London Irish Womens Centre. As title.

London Race and Housing Forum (1981) Racial Harassment on Local Authority Housing Estates. London: CRE. Discussion of the meaning of racial harassment and the scope for different agencies to tackle harassment. However, the report highlights that minority ethnic households were unlikely to have their complaints of racial harassment taken seriously by a range of agencies. They were also unlikely to benefit from a well planned strategy for tackling the problem when an agency did accept the need to act. The importance of improved preventative, as well as reactive, strategies is emphasised. London Research Centre (1993) Harassment in London: safe as houses? London Housing Survey 1992. London: London Research Centre. As title. London Research Centre (1996) National Directory of Action Against Racial Harassment. London: Lemos Associates. Good practice guide. Love, A-M. and Kirby, K. (1994) Racial Incidents in Council Housing: the local authority response. London: HMSO. Report outlining the extent to which local authorities perceived racial harassment to be a problem, identifying Asian households as the most susceptible to racial harassment. Local authority strategies for dealing with racial harassment are examined within the report. One of the significant findings was that local authorities tended to lack comprehensive information on the ethnic origin of their tenants. Lumley, R. (1993) The effects of the asylum and immigration appeals legislation on housing rights. Housing Review, 42(3), 39-40. As title. Luthra, M. (1982) Black Minorities and Housing in Ealing: a comparative study of Asian, West Indian and native white communities in Ealing and Southall. Southall: Shakti Publications. As title.

Luthra, M. (1997) Britains Black Population: social change, public policy and agenda. Aldershot: Arena. Includes a chapter providing a useful introductory analysis to race and housing issues. Lyon, M. H. (1969) The role of the settlement area in British Race Relations. Journal of Biosocial Science, Supplement, 1, 163-172. As title.

MacEwen, M. (1986) Racial Harassment, Council Housing and the Law. Research Paper No. 11 of the Department of Town and Country Planning and SEMRU Research Paper No. 1. Edinburgh: Edinburgh College of Art/HeriotWatt University. Argues for a change in the law and multi-agency approaches to tackling racial harassment. MacEwen, M. (1987) Housing Allocations, Race and Law. Research Paper No. 14 of the Department of Town and Country Planning and SEMRU Research Paper No. 2. Edinburgh: Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot-Watt University. Highlights the housing implications for local authorities of the 1976 Race Relations Act and makes recommendations for policy and legal changes. MacEwen, M. (1988) Racial incidents, council housing and the law. Housing Studies, 3(1), 59-72. Outlines the problems of racial harassment in social housing, the legal remedies and the responses of housing authorities. Concludes by advocating changes to the law and the development of multi-agency strategies. MacEwen, M. (1990) Homelessness, race and law. New Community, 16(4), 505-522. The article includes an outline of the definition of homelessness and a discussion of the homeless crisis and statutory discretion in a context of the needs of minority ethnic households. MacEwen, M. (1991) Housing, Race and Law: the British experience. London: Routledge. Includes a detailed examination of the 1976 Race Relations Act supplemented by an examination of issues in practice. MacEwen concludes that it is weaknesses in the enforcement of the Act, rather than weaknesses in the legislation per se, which need to be addressed. MacEwen, M. (1994) Anti-discrimination law in Great Britain. New Community, 20(3), 353-370. Includes reference to housing issues.

MacEwen, M. (1995) Tackling Racism in Europe: an examination of anti-discrimination law in practice. Oxford: Berg. Brief reference to housing. Malpass, P. and Jones, C. (nd) Extending the Hand of Friendship: the first forty years of the Friendship Group. Birmingham: The Friendship Group. Describes the development and activities of a housing association set up in 1956 to house and befriend immigrants, and to help them integrate into the British way of life (p.2), which developed into a general housing association whilst retaining a commitment to race equality issues and the provision of community services.

Mama, A. (1989) The Hidden Struggle: statutory and voluntary sector responses to violence against women in the home. London: Race and Housing Unit. Study of domestic violence against minority ethnic women in London arguing that triple oppression occurs on the basis of race, class and sex. Police and local authority responses to the needs of women experiencing domestic violence are criticised and a number of recommendations for improvements in practice are made. Mannick, A. R. (1987) Mauritians in London. Mayfield: Dodo Books. Includes reference to housing issues. Marett, V. (1989) Immigrants Settling in the City. London: Leicester University Press. Focuses upon Leicester and discusses the housing experiences of Ugandan Asians. Marett identifies the obstacles to accessing local authority stock and notes: the assumed preference of all Asian communities for accommodation in the private sector; levels of overcrowding; and the political storm generated by the arrival of the Ugandan Asian community. Marett argues that a parallel housing market developed operated by Asian landlords, which allowed access to housing, albeit frequently poor quality accommodation at high rents. The publication also discusses the spatial distribution of Asian families in Leicester, preferences for owneroccupation and a willingness to consider housing association and local authority accommodation. Nevertheless, local authority stock remained unpopular, not only reflecting lack of desire to rent, but also the barriers to gaining access to this sector at the communitys time of arrival in Leicester, along with the poor quality and inappropriate size of accommodation and the risk of racial attack. Marsh, A. and Sangster, A. (1998) Paving the Way. Bristol: Policy Press. Housing Corporation funded research assessing the impact of the work of the Housing Associations Charitable Trust (HACT) on black and minority ethnic housing associations. A number of general policy

issues are identified and recommendations are made regarding the future work of HACT. Marshall, D., Royce, C., Saw, P., Whitehead, C. and Woodrow, J. (1998) A Level Playing Field: rents, viability and value in BME housing associations? York: York Publishing Services. Notes that black and minority ethnic housing associations charge higher rents than mainstream associations. However, Marshall et al that it is the smaller more community based black and minority ethnic housing associations who are particularly likely to charge higher rents, although they are also likely to offer additional service to their tenants. The report emphasises that black and minority ethnic housing associations are still more likely to be affected by external pressures than mainstream organisations. Mason, D. (1995) Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Short but useful overview chapter on housing and the built environment. Mason, T. (1977/78) Residential succession, community facilities and urban renewal in Cheetham Hill, Manchester. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 78-87. Deals with the impact of clearance policies upon community and particularly minority ethnic communities. McCalman, J. A. (1990) The Forgotten People. London: Kings Fund Centre. Cited above as indicating that carers, as well as those they care for, have high levels of housing need. McEvoy, D. (1978) The segregation of Asian immigrants in Glasgow: a note. Scottish Geographer Magazine, 94, 180-182. As title. McFarland, E. and Walsh, D. (1988) Refugees in Strathclyde. SEMRU Research Paper No. 6. Glasgow: Glasgow College. As title.

McFarland, E. and Walsh, D. (1989) Refugees in Strathclyde: the challenge of resettlement. Critical Social Policy, 9(2), 101-106. As title. McFarland, E., Dalton, M. and Walsh, D. (1989) Ethnic minority needs and service delivery: the barriers to access in a Glasgow inner-city area. New Community, 15(3), 405-415. Includes passing reference to the extent of housing problems. McKay, D. (1977) Housing and Race in Industrial Society. London: Croom Helm. Written just prior to the passing of the 1976 Race Relations Act and examining housing and race issues in the UK and US, with particular reference to legislative attempts to control discrimination, and the features of public sector policies. McLeod, L. (1988) Irrespective of Race, Colour or Creed?: minority ethnic groups and the voluntary sector in Scotland. London: CRE. As title. McVeigh, R. (1997) Theorising sedentarism: the roots of anti-nomadism. In T. Acton (ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, 7-25. Discussion of prejudice against nomadic ways of life. Means, R. and Sangster, A. (1998) In Search of a Home: an evaluation of refugee housing advice and development workers. Bristol: Policy Press. Based upon four case studies and demonstrating the considerable amount of housing advice needed by refugees and asylum seekers. Means and Sangster emphasise that attempts to provide proactive housing advice have been hampered by the volume of crisis work required. The report also draws attention to the precarious funding of the advice workers posts. Mercer, J. (1990) The Residential Distribution and Housing of a Racialised Minority: Glasgow. Discussion Paper No. 28. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow.

Demonstrates the residential concentration of Asian communities in Glasgow and their disproportionate representation in owner-occupation. Mildon, I. W. (1977/78): West Indian house owners in Croydon. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 94-98. Notes that housing availability and the presence of relatives and friends in the area, alongside some constraints in options, were the main reasons for moving to Croydon. Mildon outlines that there was some evidence of residential dispersal. Misra, A. (1990) Supporting Black Housing Associations. London: NFHA. Practical strategy encouraging mainstream housing associations to support black and minority ethnic housing associations. Misra, A. (1991) Stock Transfers to Black Associations: a guide for both transferring and black housing associations. London: NFHA. Practical guide for one of the policies which was promoted by the NFHA, Housing Corporation and Federation of Black Housing Organisations as a means of supporting the viability of black and minority ethnic housing associations. Misra, A. (1992a) Equal Opportunities in Housing Associations: are you doing enough? London: NFHA. Also sometimes referenced to the NFHA rather than Misra. Presents results of a survey of the equal opportunities policies and procedures of housing associations. Misra, A. (1992) Race Equality Strategy. London: NFHA. Sometimes referenced to the NFHA rather than Misra. Sets out the NFHAs five year housing strategy. Misra, A. (1994) Places Round the Table: equal opportunities and housing association committees. London: NFHA. Draws attention to the marginalisation of committee recruitment procedures within housing association equal opportunities policies, despite the significance of this area in policy creation. For example, most associations continued to recruit

committee members by word of mouth despite, or perhaps resulting in, an under-representation of committee members from minority ethnic communities. Modood, T. (1990) Catching up with Jesse Jackson: being oppressed and being somebody. New Community, 17(1), 85-96. Includes a useful critiques of Smiths (1989 below) work. Modood, T. (1992) Not Easy Being British: colour, culture and citizenship. Stoke-on-Trent: Runnymede Trust and Trentham Books. Includes Modoods (1990) essay noted above.

Modood, T. (1997) Employment. In T. Modood, R., Berthoud et al (eds.), Ethnic Minorities in Britain: diversity and disadvantage. The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities. London: PSI, 83-149. Highlights the diverse employment position of minority ethnic communities and seeks to explain this diversity. Mojara, N. and Popplestone, G. (1987) Tackling racial harassment. Housing and Planning Review, 42(5), 4-5. Practice based guide. Moore, R. (1977) Becoming a sociologist in Sparkbrook. In C. Bell and H. Newby (eds.), Doing Sociological Research. London: George Allen and Unwin, 87-107. Account of mainly methodological issues arising from the Rex and Moore (1967 below) research. Moore, R. (1992) Labour and housing markets in inner city regeneration. New Community, 18(3), 371-386. Article focusing upon Liverpool and London dockland regeneration schemes and their impact upon the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Moore seeks to develop a debate concerning the relationships between housing, household structure and the labour market at a time of economic change. Moore, R. (1994) Crisis and compliance: the Liverpool non-discrimination notice, 1989-1994. New Community, 20(4), 581-602. Catalogues the unresponsiveness of the City Council to the serving of a non-discrimination notice following the CREs investigation of housing policies (CRE 1989a above). Moore concludes by emphasising the need to ensure that enforcement strategies are sensitive to local circumstance and involve the views of minority ethnic communities. Morgan, B. S. (1982) An assessment of some technical problems in the comparative study of residential segregation. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 7(2), 227-232. As title.

Morgan, B. S. (1983) A distance-decay based interaction index to measure residential segregation. Area, 15(3), 211-217. As title. Morley, P. (nd) West Indian Senior Citizens Project: a lesson in inter-agency co-operation. Leicester: Leicester Housing Association. Report on a housing scheme in Leicester targeted upon the African Caribbean community and focusing upon the difficulties experienced between a mainstream housing association and voluntary groups from the minority ethnic communities. Morris, J. and Winn, M. (1990) Housing and Social Inequality. London: Shipman. Useful overview of the linkages between housing and social inequality, including a good, though now slightly outdated, examination of race and housing issues. Mougne, C. (1986) Study of Young Single Vietnamese in Britain. Derby: Refugee Action. Includes discussion of housing issues. Mullings, B. (1991) The Colour of Money: the impact of housing investment decision making on black housing outcomes in London. London: London Race and Housing Research Unit. Focusing in detail on the impact of local authority investment programmes on the housing outcomes of minority ethnic households. Mullings demonstrates that the worst estates, where minority ethnic households are disproportionately concentrated, do not tend to be prioritised for investment, losing out to other estates where a quicker fix is available. Mullings notes that the process of prioritisation is not only officer led rather than tenant led, but is also characterised by considerable officer discretion. Mullings also examines investment in the private sector through area renewal and grants programmes. Mullings concludes that the system of grants, and its implementation process, acts to disadvantage minority ethnic households. Mullings, B. (1992) Investing in public housing and racial discrimination: implications in the 1990s. New Community, 18(3), 415-425.

As Mullings notes, the relationship between race and investment in the public housing stock is not a commonly researched one (p.415). However, this is particularly surprising given the differential effects which Mullings demonstrates of social housing investment strategies on different ethnic groups. Mullins, D. (1988) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 15(1), 117-123. Prior to its evolution into the Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, New Community published short housing and urban policy reports on topical issues in April and October of each year. This example by Mullins is typical, with short comments on emerging issues, including an update on the progress of the Governments Housing Bill, homelessness policies in Tower Hamlets and Camden and the weaknesses in local government race equality strategies. Mullins, D. (1989) Housing and urban policy. Community, 15(3), 475-482. Current issues report examining homelessness recent CRE investigations.

New and

Mullins, D. (1989) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 16(1), 145-162. Current issues report focusing on the 1988 Housing Act and its implications for minority ethnic households. Reference is also made to the CRE investigation of housing practices in Liverpool and recent academic work. Mullins, D. (1990) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 16(3), 454-462. Current issues report discussing the Governments homelessness review and other new legislation. The article also refers to recent CRE investigations. Mullins, D. (1990) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 17(1), 114-122. Current issues report focusing on the CRE Housing Codes of Practice, homelessness, the effectiveness of race equality policies in housing, discrimination by estate agents, housing discrimination in Scotland, housing needs and urban regeneration policy. Mullins, D. (1991) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 17(3), 448-456.

Current issues report focusing on racial harassment and the extent of discrimination in the social and private rented sector, with particular reference to a number of CRE reports. Mullins, D. (1992) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 18(1), 148-155. Current issues report focusing on urban policy developments, the announcement by the CRE of the formal investigation into housing associations, housing investment and local authority housing. Mullins, D. (1992) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 18(3), 475-479. Current issues report focusing on refugees, black and minority ethnic housing associations and monitoring and target setting. Mullins, D. (1992) From local politics to state regulation: the legislation and policy on race equality in housing. New Community, 18(3), 401-413. Charts the growth in significance of the regulatory approach to ensuring race equality in housing outcomes in comparison with high profile political approaches which were popular amongst some local authorities. Mullins, D. (1992) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 19(1), 156-160. Current issues report on the implications of Compulsory Competitive Tendering, greater central control over housing investment, stock transfers from local authorities. Also includes general notes on urban policy and recent cases of discrimination in housing. Mullins, D. (1992) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 19(3), 539-545. Current issues report outlining the race equality implications of developments in the owner-occupied market, new rules for local authority capital receipts, compulsory competitive tendering of housing management, voluntary transfers and the development of equality objectives within the growing performance monitoring culture in social housing.

Mullins, D. (1992) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 20(1), 161-166. Current issues report discussing the continuing problems of racial harassment; the relationship between immigration legislation and homelessness controls, and tenant involvement in social housing. Mullins, D. (1994) Housing and urban policy. New Community, 20(3), 520-525. Current issues report focusing on urban policy issues, the findings of the CREs formal investigation into the housing association movement and the housing issues in the Tower Hamlets by-election which led to the election of a British National Party candidate. Munt, I. (1991) Race, urban policy and urban problems: a critique on current UK housing practice. Urban Studies, 28(2), 183-203. As title. Murie, A. (1991) Introduction to the policies in European countries. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 171178. Charts settlement patterns and housing experiences and argues that it is the general tenure and price structure of the market which is important (p.176) for minority ethnic communities rather than special schemes. Murphy, D. (1987) Tales from Two Cities: travel of another sort. London: John Murray. A study of life over a two year period in Manningham, Bradford and Handsworth, Birmingham with some reference to race and housing. Murphy, M. (1996) Household and family structure among ethnic minority groups. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 213-242. Background information for housing providers. Murray, R. and Boal, F. W. (1979) The social ecology of urban violence. In D. T. Herbert and D. M. Smith

(eds.), Social Problems and the City: geographical perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 139157. Includes discussion of the spatial aspects of racial violence. Nanton, P. (1990) Professional training and passive discrimination against ethnic minorities: a review of recent evidence. Critical Social Policy, 10(1), 7984. Includes some reference to housing issues. National Campaign for the Homeless (1990) Guidelines of Accommodation Policies in Relation to Travellers. London: National Campaign for the Homeless. Practice based advice. National Federation of Housing Co-operatives (1986) Membership and Allocation Policies. London: NFHC. Part of the formulation of equal opportunities policies in the co-operative housing sector. Newman, D. (1985) The changing distribution of the Anglo-Jewish community. Transactions of the British Institute of Geographers, 10, 360. One of the relatively few articles focusing on the Jewish community. Charts the communitys movement away from the inner-city. Newman, D. (1987) Data collection problems and the identification of Jewish ethnic community patterns: a reply. Transactions of the British Institute of Geographers, 12(1), 113-115. As title. NFHA (1982) Race and Housing: a guide for housing associations. London: NFHA. Produced largely as a reaction to the urban disturbances of 1981 and covering housing and employment issues. The report demonstrates the need to achieve attitudinal change over the most fundamental of concepts, such as the principle of ethnic record keeping, and in its own best practice is far from radical, for example with respect to racial harassment (see the literature review above).

NFHA (1983) Race and Housing ... Still a Cause for Concern. London: NFHA. Highlights a large degree of inaction on race equality issues, despite the preceding report (NFHA 1982), and wide variations in the assessment of housing association performance between minority ethnic communities (critical) and the housing associations assessed (complacent). Rich source of information for the researcher. NFHA (1985) Ethnic Record-Keeping London: NFHA. Good practice guide.

and

Monitoring.

NFHA (1989) Racial Harassment: policies and procedures for housing associations. London: NFHA. As title. NFHA (1989) Race and Housing: employment and training guide. London: NFHA. Written by Pat Dixon and edited by Sue Goodrich and Alison Stanford. Highlights best practice in tackling discrimination within the employment process. NFHA (1993) Using Race Equality Targets: promoting good practice and positive action. London: NFHA. Written by Lemos and Seager and edited by NFHA staff, this represents recommended best practice for housing associations on setting numerical targets for race equality work. NFHA Yorkshire and Humberside Region (1990) Target Setting and Equal Opportunities in Housing Associations. Leeds: NFHA Yorkshire and Humberside Region. Ground breaking report in promoting numerical target setting to the housing association movement. NHF (formerly NFHA) (1998) Promoting Diversity, Choice and Involvement: a new vision for a black and minority ethnic housing policy. London: NHF. Position statement and general response to the Housing Corporations proposals for a new Black and Minority Ethnic housing policy (finally published as Housing Corporation 1998 above). The report includes an outline of community needs and past approaches to race equality. It also argues that race equality

policies should: be needs-based; respect diversity; promote equality; focus on quality; offer choice; value independence; promote involvement; include partnerships and be holistic. In addition, the report argues that local authorities have not satisfactorily met their section 71 duties in the formulation of local housing strategies.

NHF (1998) Equality in Housing: a code of practice. London: NHF. Aims to provide a framework for the development of race equality policies drawing on existing good practice. NHF (1998) Equality in Housing: guidance for tackling discrimination and promoting equality. London: NHF. Supplement to the above publication. Niner, P. (1984) Housing associations and ethnic minorities. New Community, XI(3), 238-255. Stresses the importance of assessing the work of housing associations. The article uses three case study housing associations to provide a basis for a discussion of ethnic record keeping and monitoring and some advice on best practice. Niner, P. (1987) Housing associations and ethnic minorities. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing. Studies in Housing 2, Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, 219-247. Emphasises the growing importance of the housing association movement and includes detailed case studies focusing upon the work of Bournville Village Trust and Family Housing Association. Niner highlights major differences in the character of housing associations within a particular area and suggests that a single referral agency would overcome some of the access barriers which this presents to customers. However, the most striking theme of the chapter is the discussion of the considerable discretion available to housing associations within allocations policies and the way in which this could lead to bias. The chapter also includes a discussion of the development of fair housing policies within the housing association sector. Niner, P. in collaboration with Karn, V. (1985) Housing Association Allocations: achieving racial equality. London: The Runnymede Trust. General material on housing associations in the West Midlands supported by detailed case studies of housing allocations at Bournville Village Trust and Family Housing Association. Highlights the lack of attention given by associations to race equality issues, the limited geographical choices available

through most associations, the trend to convert properties to flats rather than develop large family homes and the discretion and flexibility of allocations policies. Nowikowski, S. and Ward, R. (1979) Middle class and British?: an analysis of South Asians in suburbia. New Community, VII(1), 1-10. Discusses the effect on life chances and life styles of residential dispersal. Ntolo, D. with Cohen, P. (1994) The Sacred and the Profane. Essex: University of East London. Account of the local authority housing departments attempts to ensure the demolition of a place of religious worship built in the back garden of a council house, despite an absence of objections from the planning department. The account highlights the racist nature of the incident.

OFlynn, J. and Murphy, D. (eds.) (nd) Resource Handbook: data and information on the Irish in Britain. London: AGIY. Illustrates the housing disadvantage experienced by the Irish community. OLoughlin, J. (1987) Introduction: foreign minorities in continental European cities. In G. Glebe and J. O Loughlin (eds.), Foreign Minorities in Continental European Cities. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 929. Includes discussion of housing and social change from an international perspective. OMeachair, G. and Burns, A. (1988) Irish Homelessness: the hidden dimension. London: CARA Irish Homeless Project. As title. Oc, T. (1987) Inner city housing improvement and ethnic minorities in Britain. In W. van Vliet, H. Choldin, W. Michelson and D. Popenhoe (eds.), Housing and Neighbourhoods: theoretical and empirical contributions. Westport: Greenwood Press, 91-104. Oc examines the impact of housing improvement strategies on minority ethnic communities, including case studies focusing on Bristol, Leicester and London. He concludes that minority ethnic communities are less likely to take advantage of house improvement grants, with lack of finance to meet grant shortfall being an important factor. Amongst the recommendations, Oc suggests that there should be discretion for local authorities to meet the whole cost of improvements, that there should be special funding for housing associations and that there should be special programmes targeted on minority ethnic communities. Omershah, S. (nd) Asian Women and Housing. London: ASHA Asian Womens Resource Project. As title. Owen, D. (1992) Ethnic Minorities in Great Britain: settlement patterns. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 1. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census.

Owen, D. (1993) Ethnic Minorities in Great Britain: housing and family characteristics. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 4. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census. Owen, D. (1993) Country of Birth: settlement patterns. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 5. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census. Owen, D. (1994) Spatial variations in ethnic minority group populations in Great Britain. Population Trends, 78, 23-33. Maps geographical outcomes. Owen, D. (1994) Black People in Great Britain: social and economic circumstances. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 6. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census, includes housing characteristics. Owen, D. (1994) South Asian People in Great Britain: social and economic circumstances. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 7. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census, includes housing characteristics. Owen, D. (1994) Chinese People and Other Ethnic Minorities in Great Britain: social and economic circumstances. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 8. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census, includes housing characteristics. Owen, D. (1995) Irish-Born People in Great Britain: settlement patterns and socio-economic circumstances. 1991 Census Statistical Paper No. 9. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Part of University of Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations series on the 1991 Census.

Owen, D. (1996a) Size, structure and growth ethnic minority populations. In D. Coleman Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. One: demographic characteristics of the minority populations. London: HMSO, 80-123. Contains useful information concerning patterns and age and sex structures.

of the and J. Volume ethnic spatial

Owen, D. (1996) Black-Other: the melting pot. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 66-94. Includes geographical distribution and housing characteristics. Owen, D. (1996) The Other-Asians: the salad bowl. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 181-205. Discussion includes geographical and housing characteristics. Owen, D. (1997) Labour force participation rates, self-employment and unemployment. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 29-66. Key discussion of structural factors enabling and disabling access to housing. Owen, D. and Green, A. (1992) Labour market experience and occupational change amongst ethnic groups in Great Britain. New Community, 19(1), 7-29. Background to housing opportunities. Owen, D. and Johnson, M. (1996) Ethnic minorities in the Midlands. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 227-270. Highlights the differences between the spatial and socio-economic outcomes of minority ethnic communities and white communities, and also between minority ethnic communities. Draws attention to the concentration of minority ethnic communities within

particular areas of the Midlands, notably the older parts of the larger urban areas which are often areas of housing deprivation. Page, D. (1993) Building for Communities. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Cited in the literature review above as drawing attention to the need to develop particularistic conceptions of housing need. Pamela Brown Associates (ed.) 1994: equal opportunities and CCT: is there a conflict? London: PBA. Record of seminar proceedings on an important and under-researched topic. Parker, D. (1994) The Chinese in Britain: annotated bibliography and research resources. Bibliography in Ethnic Relations No. 12. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Includes some reference to unpublished housing sources. Parker, J. and Dugmore, K. (1976) Colour and Allocation of GLC Housing: the report of the GLC Letting Survey, 1974-75. London: GLC. Survey of GLC allocations practices, highlighting that households from minority ethnic communities were being housed in poorer quality accommodation within the authoritys area. Parker, J. and Dugmore, K. (1977/78) Race and the Allocation of Public Housing: a GLC survey. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 27-40. As Parker and Dugmore (1976) above, noting that priority systems and the preference of minority ethnic households for inner London appear to play a part in housing outcomes. The article also identifies the scope for bias. Patel, G. (1994) The Porth Project: a study of homelessness and running away amongst young black people in Newport, Gwent. London: The Childrens Society. Highlights a lack of data concerning the client group resulting from a lack of ethnic monitoring and more

generally a lack of sensitivity minority ethnic communities.

to

the

needs

of

Patel, G. (1996) Black Housing Associations and Private Finance: a good practice guide. London: FBHO. Practice based guide for overcoming one of the presumed problems facing the development of black and minority ethnic housing associations, drawing on evidence from lenders and black and minority ethnic housing associations. Patterson, S. (1965) Dark Strangers: a study of West Indians in London. Harmondsworth: Penguin. A study of the relations between the white and African Caribbean communities in Brixton, including a section focusing on housing issues. Patterson, S. (1969) Immigration and Race Relations in Britain 1960-1967. London: Institute of Race Relations/Oxford University Press. Includes an extensive section on the housing situation at that time, noting that housing is both the greatest problem that confronts the immigrants themselves and the sphere in which the greatest tensions are likely to arise between immigrants and local people (p.194). Patterson, S. (1977) The Poles: an exile community in Britain. In J. Watson (ed.), Between Two Cultures: migrants and minorities in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell, 214-241. Includes discussion of settlement patterns and tenure outcomes. Pawson, H. (1988) Race and the allocation of public housing: changing perspectives, recurrent themes. Housing Studies, 3(2), 134-139. Highlights the enduring nature of the discrimination facing minority ethnic households from housing visitors, and the need for the professionalisation of housing visitors and action to tackle institutional racism within housing departments. Peach, C (1966) Factors affecting the distribution of West Indians in Great Britain. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38, 151-163. As title.

Peach, C. (1968) West Indian Migration to Britain: a social geography. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations. Spatial mapping, including a discussion of the likelihood of segregation within a framework which suggests that dispersal is desirable, and a discussion of the positive and negative factors contributing to segregation. Peach notes that the barriers to access to housing through discrimination seem to be even greater than the barriers to employment. Peach, C. (1975) Immigrants in the Geographical Journal, 141, 372-379. As title.

inner

city.

Peach, C. (1975) Urban Social Segregation. London: Longman. As title. Peach, C. (1978) Spatial distribution and the assimilation of West Indian immigrants in British cities. In H. E. Lamur and J. D. Speckman (eds.), The Adaptation of Migrants from the Caribbean in the European and American Metropolis. Amsterdam: Department of Anthropology and non-Western Sociology. As title. Peach, C. (1979) Race and space: a comment. Area, 11(1), 82-84. Debate following Jones and McEvoy (1978 above), regarding the extent of spatial significance and the significance of these levels. Peach, C. (1979) More on race and space. Area, 11(3), 221-222. This article argues that Jones and McEvoys (1978 above), emphasis on the crucial role played by discrimination in shaping spatial patterns is not sufficient to wholly explain the differences in spatial patterns between ethnic groups. Peach, C. (1981) Conflicting interpretations of segregation. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 19-33.

Discussion of the measurement and interpretation of segregation, including a critique of Marxist approaches. Peach, C. (1982) The growth and distribution of the black population in Britain, 1945-1980. In D. Coleman (ed.), Demography of Immigrants and Minority Groups in the United Kingdom. London: Academic Press, 23-42. As title. Peach, C. (1984) The force of West Indian island identity in Britain. In C. Clarke, D. Ley and C. Peach (eds.), Geography and Ethnic Pluralism. London: Allen and Unwin, 23-42. Cited in the literature review above as demonstrating the residential segregation between migrants from particular Caribbean islands in Britain. Peach, C. (1986) Patterns of Afro-Caribbean migration and settlement in Great Britain: 1945-81. In C. Brock (ed.), The Caribbean in Europe. London: Frank Cass, 62-84. Outlines settlement patterns. Peach, C. (1987) Immigration and segregation in Western Europe since 1945. In G. Glebe and J. O Loughlin (eds.), Foreign Minorities in Continental European Cities. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 3051. Includes a section on the extent of segregation in Britain, characterising the minority ethnic population as a replacement population concentrated in increasing proportions in the inner city, at a time of relatively increasing white suburbanisation. Peach rejects economic class as a satisfactory explanation for these outcomes, suggesting that a mixture of household choice, coupled with exclusion from particular areas, provides the most persuasive explanation. Peach, C. (1991) The Caribbean in Europe: contrasting patterns of migration and settlement in Britain, France and the Netherlands. Research Paper in Ethnic Relations No. 15. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Includes a brief note on housing issues.

Peach, C. (1992) Urban concentration and segregation in Europe since 1945. In M. Cross (ed.), Ethnic Minorities and Industrial Change in Europe and North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 113136. Includes a discussion of spatial segregation in Britain. Peach, C. (1996a) Introduction. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 1-24. Includes discussion of geographical and housing issues. Peach, C. (1996) Black-Caribbeans: class, gender and geography. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census: Volume Two. the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 25-43. Data on geographical segregation and concentration. Peach, C. (ed.) (1996) Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO. References to housing within edited volume. Peach, C. (1996) Does Britain have ghettos? Transactions, Institute of British Geographers, 21(1), 216-235. As title. Peach, C. and Byron, M. (1992) Caribbean tenants in council housing: race, class and gender. New Community, 19(3), 407-424. An important article highlighting the significance of gender alongside race and class in shaping the housing outcomes of the African Caribbean community. Peach, C. and Byron, M. (1994) Council house sales, residualisation and Afro-Caribbeans. Journal of Social Policy, 23(3), 363-383. Demonstrates that African Caribbean communities had similar levels of council house purchase rates to white communities overall and once property type is controlled for were more likely to buy their council houses. However, Peach and Byron emphasise that these represent tenure, rather than spatial changes. It is African Caribbean single mothers they suggest who are

over-represented in the residualised section of local authority housing. Peach and Byron also include a discussion of the implications of their findings for Rex and Tomlinsons (1979 below) revised model of housing classes and suggest that there remains within the housing classes categorisation insufficient weight on the importance of housing type. They add that the access of the African Caribbean community to the local authority sector does not represent the success story that has often been portrayed in the literature, in view of the strong preference expressed by the community in this research for owner-occupation. Peach, C. and Rossiter, D. (1996) Level and nature of spatial concentration and segregation of minority ethnic populations in Great Britain, 1991. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 111-134. Discusses the different measures of segregation and the relatively low influence of factors such as socio-economic class on outcomes, whilst highlighting that Britain is still not characterised by the same level of spatial segregation as the United States. Peach, C. and Shah, S. (1980) The contribution of council house allocations to West Indian segregation in London 1961-1971. Urban Studies, 17, 333-341. Notes the apparently falling levels of African Caribbean segregation between 1961 and 1971 and suggests that increasing access to local authority accommodation helps explain these trends at a ward level. However, local authority housing was frequently only available in boroughs where the community was already resident rather than on a wider scale, presenting a possible brake on further dispersal. Peach and Shah add that in London African Caribbean households were being disproportionately housed in the poorest quality stock. They also suggest that African Caribbean households were being housed in particular inner city boroughs, possibly as a result of discrimination or possibly through choice. Thus, they suggest that there was the potential for increasing segregation between the 1971 Census and 1981 Census.

Peach, C. and Smith, S. (1981) Introduction. In C. Peach, V. Robinson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Ethnic Segregation in Cities. London: Croom Helm, 9-22. Introduction to edited volume examining issues of segregation. Peach, Ethnic Edited within

C., Robinson, V. and Smith, S. J. (eds.) 1981: Segregation in Cities. London: Croom Helm. collection, authors referred to individually this bibliography.

Peach, C., Winchester S. and Woods R. (1975) Distribution of coloured immigrants in Britain. Urban Affairs Annual Review, 9, 395-419. As title. Penoyre and Prasad with a consortium of black architects (1993) Accommodating Diversity: the design of housing for minority ethnic, religious and cultural groups. London: NFHA. Not intended to be a prescriptive guide, but draws attention to design features which may improve the satisfaction of minority ethnic households with their homes. Percy-Smith, J. (ed.) (1996) Needs Assessments in Public Policy. Buckingham: Open University Press. Contains a discussion of the difficulties and common assumptions in making housing needs assessments. Perry, J. (1973) The Fair Housing Experiment. New Community, II(2), 206-209. Focusing upon groups set up by the Community Relations Councils in Nottingham, Manchester and Sheffield. Perry emphasises that occupation of poor quality housing is not a choice. Notes the work of Fair Housing Groups in providing advisory services and attempting to influence housing policies, practices and attitudes in the public and private sectors. Perry, J. (1973) The Fair Housing Experiment: Community Relations Councils and the housing of minority groups. London: Political and Economic Planning.

Evaluation of the operation of the Community Relations Councils Fair Housing Groups. Phillips, D. (1981) The social and spatial segregation of Asians in Leicester. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 101-121. Notes the role of choice in the initial segregation of Asian communities from the white community in Leicester and the continuing self-perceived benefits deriving from clusters of minority ethnic households. Nevertheless, Phillips also highlights the importance of steering by white estate agents and the constraint of racial harassment. Phillips examines the process of dispersal of minority ethnic communities, outlining changes in aspirations, and reliance upon the protection of the community for those dispersing from traditional areas. Phillips, D. (1986) What Price Equality?: a report on the allocation of GLC housing in Tower Hamlets. London: GLC. A report which is significant for not only highlighting inequalities in housing allocations to minority ethnic communities in Tower Hamlets, but also for drawing attention to the role played by prejudicial attitudes amongst housing managers. Phillips, D. (1987) The rhetoric of anti-racism in public housing allocation. In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 212-237. Discusses anti-racist initiatives in British society and the concept of institutional racism. Phillips provides a case study of Tower Hamlets, highlighting the continuing inequalities faced by Asian households in access to housing within the borough, despite the anti-racist policies of the GLC. Important factors which contributed to these outcomes included officer discretion, coupled with stereotyping and the pressure of work. These problems were exacerbated by economic factors and racial harassment. Phillips, D. (1987) The institutionalization of racism in housing: towards an explanation. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Studies in Housing 2. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, 159-181.

Outlines the concept of institutional racism and its applicability to the social housing sector in Britain. Phillips, D. (1987) Searching for a decent home: ethnic minority progress in the post war housing market. New Community, 14(1/2), 105-107. Phillips notes that across all tenures minority ethnic communities in the 1980s continued to experience poorer quality housing and outlines competing explanations for inequality. She suggests that minority ethnic households have an increasing willingness to move away from existing areas of residence, but remain vulnerable to discrimination in exercising those options, although this is felt to be less pervasive than in the past. Phillips argues that race equality policies in housing have been limited in their success due to: wavering commitment to the policy, sometimes reflecting the vested interests of white managers; the varying scope of policies; and wider social and economic inequalities which the narrowness of the policies has been unable to address. Phillips emphasises the need for greater minority ethnic involvement in decision making in the housing sphere. Phillips, D. (1988) Race and housing in Londons East End: continuity and change. New Community, XIV(3), 356-369. Focuses on the experiences of the Jewish community in the nineteenth century and the Bangladeshi community in the twentieth century and the racial discrimination and racial harassment which they have faced in access to housing. Phillips, D. (1989) Eliminating discrimination. Housing Review, 38(5), 141-142. Emphasises the deep rooted nature of much organisational discrimination and the need for institutions to seize the initiative to tackle racial harassment. Nevertheless, Phillips suggests that it is policy implementation which offers the greatest weaknesses in provision, rather than lack of policies. The article also includes a discussion of the CREs proposed Code of Practice in Rented Housing.

Phillips, D. (1997) The housing position of ethnic minority group home owners. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 170188. Notes the differences in owner-occupation by ethnic group, by tenure representation and quality of accommodation achieved and, in particular, the importance of low income home ownership for minority ethnic communities. Whilst ethnic differentials are seen to be reducing by some measures of home ownership, Phillips argues that household structure, cultural preferences and institutional discrimination still influence differential outcomes. Phillips, D. and Karn, V. (1991) Racial segregation in Britain: patterns, processes and policy approaches. In E. D. Huttman, W. Blauw and J. Saltman (eds.), Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 63-91. Phillips and Karn draw attention to changes in the settlement patterns of minority ethnic communities. They consider the positive reasons for segregation, but emphasise that the key issue in Britain is the link between the segregation and deprivation of minority ethnic communities. Policy solutions are considered, including a discussion of dispersal policies, however, it is argued that central government action is necessary to effectively address the structural disadvantages experienced by minority ethnic communities in access to housing. Phillips, D. and Karn, V. (1992) Race and housing in a property owning democracy. New Community, 18(3), 355-369. This article highlights the extent to which minority ethnic communities have benefited from the commodification of housing. It indicates the continuing barriers to minority ethnic communities seeking to exercise choice in the private housing market, noting that the identification of commercial advantage by mainstream institutions offers the best hope of greater freedom of choice.

Planning Exchange (1994) A Review of Public Local Inquiries into Travellers Sites for the Scottish Office, Environment Department. Glasgow: The Planning Exchange. Highlights the crucial factors at public local inquiries. Plant, M. A. (1971) The attitudes of coloured immigrants in two areas of Birmingham to the concept of dispersal. Race, XII(3), 323-328. Argues that Asian households highly valued owneroccupation, with no Asian respondents expressing an interest in renting. Asian households were also unlikely to want to move house, whilst approximately a third of African Caribbean households wished to move from their existing area of residence. Policy Studies Institute (1985) Ethnic Minorities in Public Housing in Islington. London: Policy Studies Institute. Confirms that minority ethnic households in Islington had been disproportionately housed on the older estates in the borough and suggests that this reflects the availability of larger properties in these areas and the access channels in which minority ethnic households have disproportionately featured. The report does not uncover racial discrimination, but does point to the high degree of discretion available within the allocations process. Power, A. (1977) Racial Minorities and Council Housing in Islington: is the borough being fair? London: North London Housing Rights Project. Highlights the poorer quality accommodation allocated to minority ethnic households and the role of tenant pressure and housing managers in shaping these outcomes. Power, A. (1993) Hovels to High Rise: state housing in Europe since 1850. London: Routledge. Includes passing reference to race and housing issues. Prevatt Goldstein, B. (1993) Unequal Access: the housing experience of black people: facts and focus for Christian groups. London: CHAS and The Catholic Association for Racial Justice.

Intended as facts and focus for Christian groups, this booklet includes material on the housing experiences of minority ethnic households, the causes and consequences of inequality and possible policy remedies. Puxon, G. (1972) British Romanies on the move. New Community, I(5), 400-405. Discussion of the battles to evict gypsies in the 1960s and the move towards greater toleration by the state. Qureshi, T. (1998) Living in Britain, Growing Old in Britain: a study of Bangladeshi elders in London. London: Centre for Policy on Ageing. Includes a discussion of housing issues. Racial Attacks Group (1989) The Response to Racial Attacks and Harassment: guidance for the statutory agencies. London: HMSO. As title.

Radia, K. (1996) Ignored, Silenced, Neglected: housing and mental health care needs of Asian people. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Outlines the housing difficulties experienced by many Asian mental health users and the lack of culturally sensitive services. The report argues that there is a need for specialist housing which offers support for residents, an improvement in the quality and range of services, the empowerment of users, the employment of Asian staff and an increase in the sensitivity of all staff through training. Ralph, O. (1985) Report on a Seminar Day - Provision for Black and Ethnic Minority Communities in Haringey: the situation for housing associations. London: Haringey Community Relations Council. Useful source of research material which highlights the view that housing associations are more flexible than local authorities, recognise the need to be more responsive to race equality issues, but remain largely controlled by the white community. Ralph, O. and West, P. (1986) Report on a 2nd Seminar Day Provision by Housing Associations: the situation for the black and ethnic minority community in Haringey. London: Haringey Community Relations Council. Draws attention to the view of the Black Caucus of Housing Workers that housing associations were making insufficient progress in addressing race equality issues. Ram, S. and Phillips, D. (1985) Indians in Bradford: socio-economic profile and housing characteristics, 1971-84. School of Geography Working Paper 433. Leeds: Leeds University. As title. Randall, G. (nd) Over here: young Irish migrants in London. London: AGIY. Includes some consideration of housing issues. Randall, S. (1991) Local government and equal opportunities in the 1990s. Critical Social Policy, 11(1), 38-58. Focuses on inner-city deprivation rather than specifically housing, arguing that local authorities

should use enabling powers to advance the interests of communities in the inner-city. Rao, N. (1990) Black Women in Public Housing: a report on the housing problems of black women in the London Boroughs of Wandsworth and Southwark. London: London Race and Housing Research Unit, Women in Housing Group. Rao begins by drawing attention to the disproportionate income disadvantage generally experienced by women and the effect that this has in restricting access to owner occupation and the private rented sector. However, Rao also identifies factors specific to minority ethnic women, such as racism, sexism and the stigma, within some communities, regarding the formation of female headed households. Family status is seen by Rao as the key determinant of access to the social rented sector, providing particular problems for single women whose homelessness is often concealed by temporary accommodation arrangements, a point which she emphasises with reference to her case studies of the London Boroughs of Wandsworth and Southwark. Her case studies also demonstrate that minority ethnic women accessing local authority accommodation experienced long waiting times, lack of geographical choice and ultimately poor quality accommodation. Racial and sexual harassment are also identified as serious problems facing minority ethnic women, in addition to the trend in housing policy to favour the private sector. The publication concludes with a series of recommendations for further action. Rashid, S. P. and Ball, C. (1985) Mental Health, Disability, Homelessness, Race Relations. Norwich: University of East Anglia. Social Work Law File guide to the legislation covering these respective areas. Ratcliffe, P. (1981) Racism and Reaction: a profile of Handsworth. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Contains a large section on housing issues documenting the poor quality housing experienced by minority ethnic households in Handsworth. Ratcliffe suggests that the concentration of minority ethnic communities in this area of Birmingham is likely to grow and that the built environment is in need of

substantial public continued decline.

expenditure

to

prevent

its

Ratcliffe, P. (1986) Race and Housing in Britain: a bibliography. Bibliographies in Ethnic Relations No. 3. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Second edition of race and housing bibliography. Ratcliffe, P. (1988) Race, class and residence: the case of Afro-Caribbean households in Britain. In M. Cross and H. Entzinger (eds.), Lost Illusions. London: Routledge, 126-146. Notes the factors shaping the housing outcomes of African Caribbean communities such as lack of state housing provision for newly arriving communities, lack of household finance and the role of class. Ratcliffe provides a more detailed focus on London and Birmingham and the processes of discrimination before emphasising the need for economic improvements for the African Caribbean community in order to achieve housing progress. Ratcliffe, P. (1992) Renewal, regeneration and race: issues in urban policy. New Community, 18(3), 387400. Focuses upon urban policy and race, indicating the difficulties faced by minority ethnic communities as residents of areas awaiting, and experiencing, urban renewal. Ratcliffe, P. (1996a) Social geography and ethnicity: a theoretical, conceptual and substantive overview. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 1-22. Outlines the context of the ethnicity question in the 1991 Census and discusses issues of under-enumeration and changes in spatial patterns in addition to introducing the remainder of the edited collection.

Ratcliffe, P. (1996b) Race and Housing in Bradford. Bradford: Bradford Housing Forum. Detailed case study based upon almost 1,000 interviews with a sample of households identified as Muslim, Sikh, Hindu and African Caribbean. The research highlights widespread property disrepair, overcrowding as a norm within the Bangladeshi community, high levels of overcrowding within the Pakistani and, to a lesser extent, Indian communities. It also draws attention to very high numbers of minority ethnic households with disability or long term illness. Ratcliffe argues that the extended family might well fragment as households seek to meet their housing needs. He also suggests an acceptance amongst minority ethnic communities of the role which social sector housing might potentially have to play in meeting those housing needs. Ratcliffe, P. (1996) Methodological refinement, policy formulation and the future research agenda: some brief reflections. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 295-306. Stresses the importance of developing more sensitive measures of ethnicity and the collection of a wider range of data, for example housing quality, in order to improve knowledge of the social geography of ethnicity. Ratcliffe also emphasises not only the importance of social geography for sociological analysis, for example through the dynamics and impact of population redistribution, but also the need to incorporate the views of minority ethnic households within research in order to gain a greater understanding of spatial outcomes. Ratcliffe, P. (ed.) (1996) Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO. Edited volume with chapters referred to individually where appropriate in this bibliography. Ratcliffe, P. (1997a) Race, ethnicity and housing differentials in Britain. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity

in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 130-146. Notes the shortfalls of the housing data available from the 1991 Census prior to outlining the outcomes, including the differences between ethnic groups, albeit within a context of a growing coalescence in tenure outcomes between all ethnic groups. Remaining differences in tenure structure, and the differential and inferior housing quality experienced by minority ethnic households within particular tenures, are seen as reflecting: household type, settlement patterns, the actions of exchange professionals and factors of wealth and social class. In general household type and structure along with social class and discrimination are seen as far greater influences on housing outcomes than the housing choices of particular ethnic communities.

Ratcliffe, P. (1997) Housing needs and urban regeneration: a case study of Bradford. Local Government Policy Making, 23(5), 20-26. Includes a discussion of the measurement of housing needs and a case study of Bradford. Ratcliffe outlines the development of housing renewal and urban regeneration policy and the way in which minority ethnic communities have been historically excluded from the benefits of these policies. He emphasises the need for successful renewal strategies to embody the housing preferences of minority ethnic communities. Ratcliffe, P. (1997) Race, housing and the city. In N. Jewson and S. MacGregor (eds.), Transforming Cities: new spatial divisions and social transformation. London: Routledge, 87-99. As title. Ratcliffe, P. (1998) Race, housing and exclusion. Housing Studies, 13(6), 781-792. As title.

social

Rees, P. and Phillips, D. (1996) Geographical spread the national picture. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 23-109. Goes beyond the previously available Census statistics to assess the changes in spatial patterns between 1981 and 1991 by ethnic group. Rees and Phillips highlight the growing spatial distance between white and minority ethnic groups when examined at a general level, for example residence in metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. However, they highlight some processes of suburbanisation for minority ethnic communities within metropolitan areas. Rees, P. and Phillips, D. (1996) Geographical patterns in a cluster of Pennine cities. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 271-293.

Notes that the region is a less important location for minority ethnic households than London and the Midlands, whilst drawing attention to concentration in particular urban areas and the level of segregation in those areas by different measures. Refugee Action (1987) Last Refuge: elderly people from Vietnam in the UK. Derby: Refugee Action. Includes brief reference to dispersal policies, housing projects and recommended good practice for housing departments and housing associations. Revill, G. (1993) Reading Rosehill: community, identity and inner-city Derby. London: Routledge, 117-140. Useful link to the community literature focusing on a multicultural area. Rex, J. (1968) The sociology of a zone of transition. In R. Pahl (ed.), Readings in Urban Sociology. Oxford: Pergamon, 211-231. Paper based on the Rex and Moore (1967 below) study. Rex, J. (1971) The concept of housing, class and the sociology of race relations. Race, XII, 293-301. Refers to the development of the housing class model (see Rex and Moore 1967 below) and responds to some of the criticisms which had been made by other authors. Rex, J. (1976) Racial conflict in the city: the experience of Birmingham, England from 1962 to 1975. In S. E. Clarke and J. L. Obler (eds.) Urban Ethnic Conflict: a comparative perspective. Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Carolina, 132-163. Argues that there are two competing perspectives in this research field. Firstly, the optimistic view of race relations held by Rose et al (see below) celebrating the effectiveness of liberal legislation in achieving racial justice (p.133). In contrast, the competing strand, typified by Rex, points to the way in which racism has become entrenched in British society typified by rampant (p.134) discrimination in the local authority housing sector, despite the superficially sympathetic control of Labour local authorities. Rex goes on to highlight the housing problems facing minority ethnic communities in the

city as a key area of racial conflict and to celebrate the positive potential for change offered by community self-defence (p.159). Rex, J. (1977) Sociological theory and the city. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 13, 218-223. As title. Rex, J. (1981) Urban segregation and inner city policy in Great Britain. In C. Peach, V. Robinson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Ethnic Segregation in Cities. London: Croom Helm, 25-42. Rex emphasises that dispersing minority ethnic communities to get a better racial mix (p.25) will not solve the problems of segregation. He reviews the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities and discusses the housing classes thesis (see Rex and Moore 1967 below). Rex argues that the housing conditions of minority ethnic communities can be best improved through greater consideration of their needs, rather than the implementation of general policies of housing and area improvement which had previously been applied to the working class and emphasises the need to offer choices to minority ethnic communities rather than prescriptive policy. Rex, J. (1982) Racial conflict in the inner city. In J. Rex and M. Cross (eds.), Unemployment and Racial Conflict in the Inner City. Working Papers in Ethnic Relations No. 16. Birmingham: SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations, 1-14. As title. Rex, J. (1982) Three stages of immigrant housing and community in Birmingham, England. In J. Solomos (ed.), Migrant Workers in Metropolitan Cities. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation, 101-116. Rex identifies four stages in the housing and settlement careers of minority ethnic communities, with particular reference to Birmingham. First, for the majority the purchase of housing which required financing through either taking in lodgers or alternatively seeking housing as a lodger within this same category of properties; secondly a stage of family reunion largely taking place in newly established improvement areas; thirdly housing

careers affected by an inner city policy focusing on the need to disperse minority ethnic communities; and fourthly a housing career affected by the inner city as a space of racial attack and riot. Rex, J. (1986) Race and Ethnicity. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Only passing reference to housing, but still a useful place for the non race specialist to start examining issues of race and ethnicity. Rex, J. and Moore, R. (1967) Race, Community and Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press. One of the most important and debated volumes in the field of race and housing. Rex and Moore argue that people are differentiated in their ability to compete for access to scarce housing resources. They suggest that households in similar positions to each other within the housing market represent housing classes which can be defined with reference to their income, occupation, ethnic origin and the attitudes of resource allocators in public and private sector housing. Rex and Moore argue that minority ethnic households had been confined to poorer housing within the transitional zone of the city, reflecting their poorer socio-economic position in comparison with the white community, and decisions by resource allocators that minority ethnicity constituted an undeserving status for access to particular types and qualities of housing. Therefore, minority ethnic communities have been forced by the actions of gatekeepers to seek access within the poorer sectors of private rented accommodation, or those low quality areas of the owner-occupied sector which were accessible using alternative and typically less financially advantageous loans. Rex and Moore argue that the economic constraints of these disadvantageous systems of finance necessitated taking in lodgers. The result has been widespread multiple occupation and, as a consequence, a deteriorating condition of the area within conventional norms. This has contributed to a wider process of stratification, a theme which is subsequently taken up by Smith (1989 below). Rex and Moores work is based on a case study of Sparkbrook in Birmingham.

Rex, J. and Tomlinson, S. (1979) Colonial Immigrants in a British City: a class analysis. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Discusses the struggle for housing resources as one amongst a number of possibly interconnected forms of class conflict (p.127), hence revising the thesis of Rex and Moore (1967 above) that it was the key arena for the generation of inequality. Rex and Tomlinson review the housing class thesis, noting and addressing the criticism which it generated and introducing new material to build a new division of housing classes. Rex, J., Tomlinson, S., Heanden, D. and Ratcliffe, P. (1977/78) Housing, employment, education and race relations. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 123-126. Reports on the Rex and Tomlinson (1979 above) research. The article also includes a discussion of the dispersal policy which had been operated by Birmingham City Council. Rhoden, M. (1998) Equal opportunities and housing. In P. Balchin and M. Rhoden (eds.), Housing: the essential foundations. London: Routledge, 107-121. Includes a brief overview of the race and housing literature. Rich, P. B. (1987) The politics of race and segregation in British cities with reference to Birmingham 1945-1976. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Studies in Housing 2. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow, 72-106. Plots the politics behind race and housing issues with particular reference to Birmingham. Richmond, A. H. (1961) The Colour Problem. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Includes an early study of race relations in Britain, including some discussion of housing issues. Richmond, A. H. (1970) Housing and racial attitudes in Bristol. Race, XII(1), 49-59. As title. Richmond, A. H. assisted by Lyon, M. and Hale, S., King, R. (1973) Migration and Race Relations in an

English City: a study in Bristol. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations. Describes the housing position of minority ethnic communities as a replacement population in an area of declining popularity for the majority ethnic population. Richmond notes that the housing conditions were frequently poorer than those experienced by households prior to migration and much poorer than those of the majority ethnic population. Racial discrimination is seen as a key factor pushing minority ethnic communities to the owner-occupied market and, more generally, to pay more for rented and owner-occupied accommodation than the majority ethnic community. A survey of a small sample of African Caribbean households in local authority accommodation indicated that there appeared to be fair treatment of minority ethnic households in access to accommodation, although this conclusion does not appear to address the operation of a dispersal policy for African Caribbean households by the local authority. Richmond also suggests that the households had experienced little harassment from other residents, and includes a useful survey of white attitudes on council estates, appearing to demonstrate tolerance of minority ethnic households. Richmond, A. H. (1975/76) Black and Asian immigrants in Britain and Canada: some comparisons. New Community, IV(4), 501-516. Notes experiences of discrimination and the attitudes of majority ethnic communities to having minority ethnic households as neighbours. Richmond, A. H. (1976) Urban ethnic conflict in Britain and Canada: a comparative perspective. In S. E. Clarke and J. L. Obler (eds.), Urban Ethnic Conflict: a comparative perspective. Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Carolina, 164-204. Includes material on attitudes to minority ethnic households as neighbours, and the discrimination and housing conditions experienced by minority ethnic households. Ridoutt, T. (1984) Ethnic monitoring in housing departments: a necessary beginning. New Community, XI(3), 234-237.

Outline of the necessity for, and the issues arising from, the introduction of ethnic monitoring policies, with specific reference to the London Borough of Lewisham. The article concludes with an emphasis upon the usefulness of policy entrepreneurship in producing innovative policy. Robinson, V. (1979a) The Segregation of Asians Within a British City: theory and practice. School of Geography Research Paper No. 22. Oxford: Oxford University. Examines the merits of those explanations for the housing outcomes of Asian communities which emphasise housing choice and those which focus on housing constraints, with particular reference to the work of Dahya (1973 above) and Rex and Moore (1967 above). Robinson concludes, based on a case study of Blackburn, that voluntary segregation is the key explanation for spatial outcomes, a view which he argues is supported by the widespread spatial separation between different Asian communities. Indeed, he argues that the diversity of Asian communities has been ignored by academics and policy makers and adds that the generation of Asian communities studied demonstrate a deliberate rejection of British society (p.38). Robinson, V. (1979) Contrasts between Asian and white housing choice. New Community, VII(2), 195-203. Argues that whilst the Asian community in Blackburn is spatially segregated, and differentially concentrated in the housing market, this does not simply represent discrimination or socio-economic position. Robinson suggests that it also reflects a desire to restrict housing expenditure because of an intention to return home, coupled with a preference for owner-occupation. Robinson suggests the need for further research to clarify the interplay of these factors. Robinson, V. (1979) Choice and constraint in Asian housing in Blackburn. New Community, VII(3), 390-396. Argues that Asians in Blackburn constructed strategies to avoid discrimination within the housing market. Robinson adds that the clustering of the Asian community reflects housing choice and the importance of cultural and social advantages within

those areas. In summary, he suggests that choice has been an under-researched area within studies of the housing outcomes of minority ethnic communities particularly since, he holds, it is at least as important as constraints in shaping outcomes. Robinson, V. (1980a) Asians and council housing. Urban Studies, 17, 323-331. Argues that public sector housing had not been popular with the Asian community, due to size, location and cost. Robinson sees changing economic and social factors, with the catalyst of the arrival of East African Asians, leading to greater occupation of public sector housing. Robinson bases his conclusions on a case study of Blackburn.

Robinson, V. (1980) Liebersons isolation index: a case study evaluation. Area, 12(4), 307-312. Argues that spatial segregation requires the use of more than one statistic of isolation and, in particular, Liebersons isolation index, in addition to the index of dissimilarity. Blackburn is used as a case study to support these points. Robinson, V. (1981) The development of South Asian settlement in Britain and the myth of return. In C. Peach, V. Robinson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Ethnic Segregation in Cities. London: Croom Helm, 149-169. Develops the work of the Ballards (1977) through an examination of spatial patterns and housing preferences. Robinson identifies different stages of development: the early pioneer phase; the lodginghouse era; family reunion and suburbanisation or municipalisation. Robinson suggests that this last phase of residence was only just developing. The greater desire for local authority housing is seen as reflecting a weakening desire for return migration, a belief in the economic sense of renting at the time and the spatial suitability of available properties. Robinson, V. (1981) The Dynamics of Ethnic Succession: a British case study. Working Papers No. 2. Oxford: Oxford University School of Geography. As title. Robinson, V. (1981) Segregation and simulation: a reevaluation and case study. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 137-161. Application of simulation modelling to Blackburn suggesting that the dispersal of the Asian community between 1971 and 1977 had not occurred at the expected rate. Robinson, V. (1984) Asians in Britain: a study in encapsulation and marginality. In C. Peach, C. G. G. Clarke and D. Ley (eds.), The Geography of Plural Societies. London: Allen and Unwin, 231-258. As title. Robinson, V. (1982) The assimilation of South and East African Asian immigrants in Britain. In D. A. Coleman (ed.), Demography of Immigrants and Minority

Groups in the United Kingdom. London: Academic Press, 143-168. As title. Robinson, V. (1986) Transients, Settlers and Refugees. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Emphasises that the study is specific to the community studied rather than necessarily to all Asian communities, although it is suggested that Blackburn, as the place of study, may characterise the housing experiences of other towns with similar community structures. Robinson notes the constraints facing Asian households in realising housing outcomes, but also draws attention to the differences between Asians arriving in Britain directly from the sub-continent and those arriving from East Africa. One of the most frequently cited parts of the research is the greater preference of East African Asians for local authority

housing, which in the context of the research, is seen as centrally-located, modern and attractive housing available at a significantly lower cost than owner-occupation. Robinson, V. (1987) Race, space and place (a geographical study of UK ethnic relations 1957-1987). New Community, 14(1/2), 187-197 As title. Robinson, V. (1987) Spatial variability in attitudes towards race in the UK. In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 161-188. Outlines the development of social geography approaches to race issues before providing an assessment of social attitudes towards race, differentiated on the basis of spatial location and demography. Highlights the need for geographical research to continue to take into account the importance of place. Robinson, V. (1989) All change?: the distribution of Britains black population, 1971-86. Geography Review, 2, 12-16. As title. Robinson, V. (1991) Not a lot of people know that: research into the internal migration of Britains ethnic population. In A. Champion and A. Fielding (eds.), Migration Processes and Patterns: research progress and prospects. Belhaven: London, 188-201. As title. Robinson, V. (1991) Move on up: the mobility of Britains ethnic population. In J. Stillwell, P. Rees and P. Boden (eds.), Migration Patterns and Processes: population redistribution in the 1980s. London: Belhaven, 271-292. As title. Robinson, V. (1991) Goodbye yellow brick road: the spatial mobility and immobility of Britains ethnic population, 1971-81. New Community, 17(3), 313-330. Tracks the changes in spatial patterns in the UK, focusing on Asian and African Caribbean communities in comparison with the state sponsored residential

dispersal of Vietnamese refugees. The article also notes the considerable immobility of the African Caribbean community and the far greater mobility of Indian and Pakistani households in comparison with white households. Robinson, V. (1992) British policy towards the settlement patterns of ethnic groups: an empirical evaluation of the Vietnamese programme 1979-1989. In V. Robinson (ed.), The International Refugee Crisis: British and Canadian responses. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 319-355. As title. Robinson, V. (1993) The enduring geography of ethnic settlement: first results from the 1991 Census. Town and Country Planning, 62, 53-56. Comparison of settlement patterns in the 1981 and 1991 Censuses. Robinson, V. (1993) North and south: resettling Vietnamese refugees in Australia and the UK. In R. Black and V. Robinson (eds.), Geography and Refugees. London: Belhaven, 134-153. As title. Robinson, V. (1994) Race, gender and internal migration within England and Wales. Environment and Planning A, 25, 1453-1465. As title. Robinson, V. (1996) Inter-generational differences in ethnic settlement patterns in Britain. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 175-199. Highlights the different, and diverging, spatial patterns of immigrant and British born minority ethnic communities. Robinson suggests these may result from a temporary difference in outcomes related to household ages or, alternatively, longterm difference based on different life styles and socio-economic outcomes amongst other factors. Robinson, V. (1996) The Indians: onward and upward. In C. Peach (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census.

Volume Two: the ethnic minority populations of Great Britain. London: HMSO, 95-120. Includes consideration of geographical and housing issues and highlights greater owner-occupation and less use of social rented housing by the Indian community than amongst other ethnic groups. Robinson, V. and Hale, S. (1989) The Geography of Vietnamese Secondary Migration in the UK. Research Paper No. 10. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. As title. Roe, J. (1998) Housing Plus + BME + Ashiana. Housing and Planning Review, 53(4), 13. Focuses upon the successes of Ashiana Housing Association, Rochdale. Rose, E. J. B. in association with Deakin, N. et al (1969) Colour and Citizenship: a report on British race relations. London: Oxford University Press. Includes an outline of housing outcomes and a review of the changes taking place. The book also includes a discussion of housing policies and practices, emphasising the importance of housing issues as an influence on other life chances. Detailed recommendations for reform are also made. Royce, C., Yang, J. H., Patel, G., Saw, P. and Whitehead, C. (1996) Set Up to Fail?: the experience of black housing associations. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. An analysis of the role of black and minority ethnic housing associations in the social housing sector, examining the effects of the introduction of mixed funding regimes and the ending of ring fenced funding on the associations. The report identifies the different stages of development of black and minority ethnic housing associations and makes recommendations for future direction. The report is particularly important for identifying that raising private finance had proved easier than expected for many black and minority ethnic housing associations, despite some reluctance amongst lenders to make small loans or lend to small organisations. Runnymede Trust (1975) Race and Council Housing in London. London: Runnymede Trust.

Highlights the differential housing outcomes between white and minority ethnic households. Runnymede Trust (1980) Inner Cities and Black Minorities. Report of Workshop, Birmingham, 8 December 1979. London: Runnymede Trust. As title. Runnymede Trust (1994) A Very Light Sleeper - the Persistence and Dangers of Anti-Semitism. London: Runnymede Trust. Highlights an often neglected area within British race research. Salt, J. (1996) Immigration and ethnic group. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 124150. Background trends from the 1991 Census. Sampson, A. and Phillips, C. (1992) Multiple Victimisation: racial attacks on an East London estate. Police Research Group Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 36. London: Home Office Police Research Group. Research focusing on an estate where minority ethnic households were starting to be housed, having been moved off because of high levels of racial harassment some years previously. Sampson, A. (1993) Action against perpetrators of racial attacks and harassment. Housing Review, 42(3), 43-44. Report of research into strategies to prevent repeat racial attacks on housing estates. Sarre, P. (1986) Choice and constraint in ethnic minority housing - a structurationist view. Housing Studies, 1(2), 71-86. Influential article highlighting the opposing arguments of commentators emphasising the importance of housing choice and commentators emphasising the importance of housing constraints for minority ethnic households. Sarre notes the validity of both approaches and suggests the usefulness of structuration theory as a means of ending this

dichotomy, by fusing the key contributors to minority ethnic housing outcomes into an explanatory framework. The factors suggested are: cultural predispositions; economic resources; knowledge of the housing market; household structures; and racial discrimination. The article concludes with a discussion of minority ethnic housing experiences in Bedford.

Sarre, P., Phillips, D. and Skellington, R. (1989) Ethnic Minority Housing: explanations and policies. Aldershot: Avebury. Influential text applying the dominant approach of structuration theory in the current race and housing literature to the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities in Bedford. The text is also rich with material for readers wishing to develop an urban managerialist approach to race and housing. Satsangi, M. (1994) Housing and ethnic minorities in Scotland. In R. Young (ed.), Research Review, Edinburgh: Scottish Homes, 4-7. As title. Saunders, B. (1986) Homeless Young People in Britain: the contribution of the voluntary sector. London: National Council for Voluntary Organisations. Includes reference to the specific needs of minority ethnic communities. Saunders, P. (1990) A Nation of Home Owners. London: Unwin Hyman. Includes sections on minority ethnic communities and home ownership, arguing that Asian home ownership should be regarded as a success story, with a strong preference for owner-occupation in common with the white community. Save the Children Fund (1996) The Right to Roam: travellers in Scotland 1995/96. Dunfermline: Save the Children Fund (Scottish Division). Discusses the lifestyle of Travellers. Scarman (Lord) (1986) The Scarman Report. Harmondsworth: Pelican. Focuses on the Brixton disorders of April 1981, including some reference to housing. Scottish Ethnic Minorities Research Unit (1992) Report on Anti-Discrimination Law on the Grounds of Race. Volume 1. Edinburgh: SEMRU. As title. Scottish Homes (1993) Ethnic Minority Scottish Homes Consultation Paper. Scottish Homes.

Housing. A Edinburgh:

Consultation paper to address the housing inequalities of minority ethnic communities becoming apparent to the National Housing Agency for Scotland. Scottish Homes (1994) Action for Race Equality. A Scottish Homes Policy Statement. Edinburgh: Scottish Homes. The action plan following from the above consultation paper. Secretary of State for the Home Department (1994) The Government Reply to the Third Report from the Home Affairs Committee Session 1993-93 HC 71 Racial Attacks and Harassment. London: HMSO. As title. Seager, R. and Jeffery, J. (1994) Eliminating Racial Harassment: a guide to housing policies and procedure. London: Lemos Associates. Good practice manual. Sexty, C. (1990) Women Losing Out: access to housing in Britain today. London: Shelter. Includes discussion of the housing experiences of women from minority ethnic communities. Shah, S. and Peach, C. (1980) The contribution of council house allocation to West Indian desegregation in London, 1961-1971. Urban Studies, 17(3), 333-341. As title. Shah, L. and Williams, P. (1991) The Housing Needs of the Asian Elderly in Cardiff. Cardiff: Centre for Housing Management and Development, University of Wales. One of the few publications focusing on race and housing issues in Wales. Sibbitt, R. (1997) The Perpetrators of Racial Harassment and Racial Violence. Home Office Research Study 176. London: Home Office. Qualitative research including housing based accounts. Sibley, D. (1979) Classification and control in local government: a case study of gypsies in Hull. Town Planning Review, 49, 319-328.

As title. Sibley, D. (1981) Outsiders in Urban Oxford: Blackwell. Focuses on the experiences of gypsies.

Societies.

Sibley, D. (1986) Persistence or change?: conflicting interpretations of peripheral minorities. Environmental and Planning D: Society and Space, 4(1), 57-70. Focuses on the experiences of gypsies. Sibley, D. (1987) Racism and settlement policy: the states response to a semi-nomadic minority. In P. Jackson (ed.) Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 74-91. Places British gypsies within the wider race and housing literature, but highlights their distinctive treatment, given that the state has explicitly sought to shape gypsy patterns of settlement. Sills, A., Tarpey, M. and Golding, P. (1983) Asians in an inner city. New Community, XI(1/2), 34-41. Includes a discussion of the housing market, noting the reliance of Asian households in Leicester on inner city owner-occupied housing. The authors suggest that this reflects a preference for owneroccupation, coupled with constraints in access to the local authority sector, although they note some dissatisfaction with the condition of properties due to the need for improvements and repairs. The article observes the extent of poverty in the Asian community and suggests that there are flaws in area based approaches to housing renewal because of an overemphasis upon the extent of the spatial concentration of the Asian community and the greater deprivation faced by Asian communities, in comparison with non-Asian communities in the inner city. Simmons, I. (1981) Contrasts in Asian residential segregation. In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 81-99. Includes a discussion of the existing literature and factors of choice and constraint. Simmons outlines a brief case study of outcomes in the London Borough of Hounslow and draws attention to the dangers of the geographical approach which relies on analysis of

spatial patterns in order to draw conclusions of the processes which lead to those spatial patterns. Simpson, A. (1981) Stacking the Decks: a study of race, inequality and council housing in Nottingham. Nottingham: Nottingham Community Relations Council. Notes that Asians were relatively under-represented, and African Caribbean households relatively overrepresented, in local authority housing allocations and, in particular, the least desirable deck access maisonettes. Simpson strongly argues that the local authoritys housing policies have been discriminatory: The different gates through which people have entered the council house system - gateways often entirely unrelated to housing need - largely determined the housing needs of those coming. (p.249) In addition, the likelihood of conscious and/or unconscious discrimination by housing allocators is indicated. Recommendations to change practices within the local authority are placed in a context of demands for changes in national housing policy, including increases in public expenditure and the ending of council house sales. Simpson, A. (1984) Racial equality and council housing. In Labour Housing Group (eds.), Right to a Home. Nottingham: Spokesman, 130-142. Argues that structural racism and institutional racism are the most important barriers which need to be tackled in order to improve the experiences which minority ethnic households have of local authority housing. Therefore, Simpson draws attention to the limited scope of managerial solutions and criticises the administrative thrust of the CREs work for failing to address the key causes of the housing disadvantage faced by minority ethnic communities, such as capital funding. Simpson, S. (1996) Non-response to the 1991 Census: the effect on ethnic group enumeration. In D. Coleman. and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census: Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 63-79.

Useful note on the limitations of the 1991 Census data. Sims, R. (1981) Spatial separation between religious minorities: an aid to explanation or obfuscation? In P. Jackson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Social Interaction and Ethnic Segregation. London: Academic Press, 123135. Notes the importance of Robinsons work (1979a see above) within the spatial segregation debate, whilst providing a critique of the findings. Sims examines the

extent of religious separation in Manchester and Birmingham and notes the dangers of drawing and applying conclusions from spatial patterns based upon a single town as case study. Singh, A. (1992) Developing a new black housing association. In C. Davies (ed.), Housing Management: changing practice. London: Macmillan, 50-85. As title. Single Homelessness in London Anti-racist Sub-group (1988) Single Homelessness Among Black and Other Ethnic Minorities: local authority policy and practice. London: SHIL. Highlights an absence of ethnic monitoring of single homelessness and, in part as a consequence, a lack of comprehensive awareness of the problems amongst minority ethnic communities. The report identifies attitudes and resources as the crucial, and interlinked, influences upon the future success of provision for minority ethnic communities. Skellington, R. (1978) The Housing of Minority Groups in Bedford. Occasional Papers No. 1. Milton Keynes: Open University, Faculty of Social Sciences. As title. Skellington, R. (1980) Council House Allocation in a Multi-Racial Town. Occasional Papers No. 2. Milton Keynes: Open University, Faculty of Social Sciences. As title. Skellington, R. (1981) How blacks lose out in council housing. New Society, 29/1, 187-190. Highlights that discriminatory housing outcomes might continue despite the introduction of seemingly objective housing points schemes. The article notes the increasing level of demand for social sector housing from minority ethnic communities, but emphasises the need for local authority housing policies to be informed by ethnic monitoring. Skellington, R. (1996) Race in Britain Today. London: Sage. Includes an overview of race and housing issues. Based upon the 1992 edition with some additional material.

Small, S. (1991) Racialised relations in Liverpool: a contemporary anomaly. New Community, 17(4), 511-537. Discussion of spatial and social segregation in Liverpool, making brief reference to housing and discussing the racialisation problematic (p.511).

Smith, D. J. (1977) The housing of racial minorities: its unusual nature. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 1826. Draws attention to the distinctiveness of minority ethnic housing outcomes. For example, the greater levels of owner-occupation amongst poorer, rather than better off Asian households, the tendency of all ethnic groups to rent from landlords of the same ethnic group and the poorer quality accommodation experienced by minority ethnic households. Smith emphasises the need for policy measures to address the disadvantage that minority ethnic households face in the owner occupied and social sectors. Smith, D. J. (1977) Racial Disadvantage in Britain. Harmondsworth: Penguin. The second PEP report including a section on housing focusing on: tenure; quality of housing; access to council housing; discrimination in private sector housing; and the existence of, and changes to, patterns of segregation. Smith, D. J. and Whalley, A. (1975) Racial Minorities and Public Housing. London: PEP. Study of ten local authority areas highlighting the problems facing minority ethnic communities in gaining access to local authority housing. Smith, E. and Steele, A. (1997) Adding an ethnic dimension to local housing need assessments: the use of the 1991 Census of population. In V. Karn (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Four: employment, education and housing among the ethnic minority populations of Britain. London: HMSO, 221241. Encourages greater use of housing quality measures in the 2001 Census, in addition to income questions, in order to facilitate the assessment of local housing needs. A case study of existing work in Oldham is included. Smith, S. J. (1987) Residential segregation: a geography of English racism? In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 25-49. A theoretical examination of racial residential segregation in Britain. Smith charts the governmental

expectations that minority ethnic communities would disperse amongst the wider community, whilst adopting a laissez-fare approach to the achieval of this objective. However, she notes that governmental housing legislation consistently maintained residential segregation, for example, through the shift away from slum clearance policies and the social and spatial residualisation of the social housing stock as a result of initiatives such as the right-to-buy. These contradictions of national policy aims and legislation are largely explained by Smith in a context of changing national attitudes towards race and, most recently, a loss of white cultural identity within a political system where minority ethnic communities are marginalised in national political debate. Smith, S. J. (1988) Political interpretations of racial segregation in Britain. Society and Space, 6, 423-444. As title.

Smith, S. J. (1989) The Politics of Race and Residence. Cambridge: Polity. A frequently cited publication. Smith focuses upon the central role of housing policy as a cause and a product of racial residential segregation, through its interaction with social, economic and particularly political factors. Smith, S. J. (1989) Background paper: housing for sons and daughters. Race and Immigration, 225, 11-13. As title. Smith, S. J. (ed.) (1992) Race and Housing in Britain. Edinburgh: The University of Edinburgh. Includes a race and housing review by Susan Smith, annotated bibliography by Sara Hill, a commentary by John Goering and reports from a research workshop at the University of York. Smith, S. J. (1993) Residential segregation and the politics of radicalisation. In M. Cross and M. Keith (eds.), Racism, the City and the State. London: Routledge, 128-143. Argues that racial segregation has been politicised, perpetuating the concept of race as a cause of difference between the actions and outcomes of communities. Smith, S. J. and Hill, S. (1997) No welcome home. In J. Goodwin and C. Grant (eds.), Built to Last?: reflections on British housing policy. London: Roof, 101-109. Mainly focusing on an outline of the experiences of minority ethnic households in gaining accommodation in Britain between 1945 and 1970. Smith S. J. and Mallinson, S. (1996) The problem with social housing: discretion, accountability and the welfare ideal. Policy and Politics, 24(4), 339-357. Includes reference to the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Smith S. J. and Mercer J. (1987) New perspectives on race and housing in Britain: a prospectus. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing in Britain. Studies in Housing 2.

Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, University of Glasgow, 1-30. Introductory chapter of edited volume plotting the themes of race and housing research and outlining the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Smith and Mercer argue that researchers must direct their attention to the housing needs and aspirations of minority ethnic households and should increase the number of cities and towns used for case studies. They argue that race and housing research is now becoming a study of how processes in the housing system mediate and sustain patterns of racial inequality (p.4). Social and Community Services Group (1990) A Survey of the Armenian Community in London. London: London Research Centre. Brief reference to the accommodation experiences of the Armenian community.

Solomos, J. (ed.) (1982) Migrant Workers in Metropolitan Cities. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation. Edited collection, authors chapters referred to individually in this bibliography. Solomos, J. (1989) From Equal Opportunity to Anti Racism: racial inequality and the limits of reform. Policy Paper in Ethnic Relations No. 17. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Some reference to housing within a more general paper highlighting piecemeal progress towards race equality objectives and the marginalisation of race equality issues from mainstream agendas. Solomos, J. (1991) The politics of race and housing. Policy and Politics, 19(3), 147-157. Focuses on the London Boroughs of Hackney and Haringey and examines the development, implementation and effects of race equality policies in local authority housing. Solomos argues that the motivation for the introduction of race equality policies was not simply access to housing, but also to increase the participation and employment of minority ethnic communities in the local authority housing sector. However, Solomos notes that inequalities remain in housing allocations and employment outcomes despite these initiatives. In particular the successful realisation of policy objectives was hampered by a lack of clear political support for the policy, including amongst minority ethnic councillors, lack of resources and organisational obstacles. Solomos, J. (1993) Race and Racism London: Macmillan. Passing reference to housing issues.

in

Britain.

Solomos, J. (1993) The local politics of racial equality: policy innovation and the limits of reform. In M. Cross and M. Keith (eds.), Racism, the City and the State. London: Routledge, 144-156. Solomos charts the historical development of local race equality policies and research studies examining the experiences of minority ethnic communities in the urban environment. He draws on existing research in order to generate a discussion of change processes and points to the difficulties facing local

authorities seeking to implement race equality policies, and in particular positive initiatives, in a broadly unfavourable political climate. Solomos, J. and Singh, G. (1990) Housing, Racial Equality and Local Politics. Policy Paper in Ethnic Relations No. 19. Coventry: CRER, University of Warwick. Solomos and Singh identify the key issues of race equality policies in the 1980s as being: housing allocations; employment recruitment; and increasing the awareness of minority ethnic communities of the role and opportunities of social sector housing,. More generally they discuss the processes of, and obstacles to, policy change and highlight the problems of the policy gap. The London Boroughs of Hackney and Haringey are used as case studies.

Solomos, J. and Singh, G. (1990) Racial equality, housing and the local state. In W. Ball and J. Solomos (eds.), Race and Local Politics. London: Macmillan, 95-114. Slightly revised version of Solomos and Singh above. Somerset, F. (1983) Vietnamese refugees in Britain: resettlement experiences. New Community, X(3), 454463. Emphasises the lack of housing choice available to Vietnamese refugees. Spitalfields Housing and Planning Rights Service (SHPRS) (1980) The Spitalfields Survey: housing and social conditions in 1980. London: SHPRS and the Catholic Aid Society. As title. SHPRS (1982) Bengalis and GLC Housing Allocations in E1. London: SHPRS. As title. SHPRS (1984) Bengalis and GLC Housing Allocations in E1: an update. London: SHPRS. As title. Stafford, B. (1987) Race and Council Housing in Rochdale. Salford: Salford Centre for Housing Studies. Analyses applications from and offers to Asian applicants for local authority housing. Strathdee, R. (1993) Housing Our Children. London: Centrepoint As title. Steele, A. (1997) Young, Drifting and Black: a report on the findings and recommendations. Nottingham: Nottingham City Council. Steele reports the opinions of homeless minority ethnic young people which suggest a widespread lack of awareness of the housing options available to them. In addition, he outlines the views of the providers of services to homeless minority ethnic young people and notes that there was a recognition amongst service providers of the distinctive needs of

minority ethnic communities which was not necessarily reflected in existing housing provision. Stevens, L., Karn, V., Davidson, E. and Stanley, A. (1981) Ethnic Minorities and Building Society Lending in Leeds. Leeds: Community Relations Council. As title. Stewart, M. and Whitting, G. (1983) Ethnic Minorities and the Urban Programme. Occasional Paper No. 9. Bristol: School of Advanced Urban Studies, University of Bristol. As title.

Storkey, M. and Lewis, R. (1996) London: a true cosmopolis. In P. Ratcliffe (ed.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume Three: social geography and ethnicity in Britain: geographical spread, spatial concentration and internal migration. London: HMSO, 201-225. Focuses on the ethnic diversity of London and the socio-economic experiences of different ethnic groups including housing. Stuart, O. (1996) Yes, we mean black disabled people too: thoughts on community care and disabled people from black and minority ethnic communities. In W. Ahmad and K. Atkin (eds.), Race and Community Care. Buckingham: Open University Press, 89-104. Important article drawing attention to the marginalisation of disabled people from minority ethnic backgrounds, the failure of independent living initiatives and the appropriateness of community care strategies. Tahir, S. (1996) Action Time!: paving the way to a brighter future: a survey of black and minority ethnic housing needs in the borough of Preston. Rochdale: Ashiana Housing Association. As title. Tambs-Lyche, H. communities in Community, IV(3), Some reference to

(1975) A comparison of Gujerati London and the Midlands. New 349-355. housing issues.

Tambs-Lyche, H. (1980) Gujerati communities in Norway and Britain: some comparative notes. New Community, VIII(3), 288-294. Some reference to housing issues. Tambs-Lyche, H. (1980) London Patidars: a case study in urban ethnicity. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Includes brief discussion of housing issues. Taper, T. (1977/78) The allocation of Islington housing to ethnic minorities. New Community, VI(1 and 2), 41-48. Highlights the better accommodation gained by majority ethnic households in comparison with minority ethnic households during local authority

housing allocations. A series of best practice recommendations are made for the future policy of the local authority. Third, H. with MacEwen, M. (1997) The housing experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. In A. Bowes and D. Sim (eds.), Perspectives on Welfare: the experience of minority ethnic groups in Scotland. Research in Ethnic Relations Series. Aldershot: Ashgate, 51-66. Charts the development of racial equality work within Scottish Homes and qualitative studies of personal housing histories. Third and MacEwen draw attention to the importance of employment position in shaping housing outcomes, perceptions of the unresponsiveness of private and public sector housing providers and the fear of racial harassment. Home ownership was the preferred tenure amongst respondents, however, this was a preference shaped by the way in which it facilitated access to particular property types and geographical areas, in addition to the constraints in access to the rented sector. The article notes that minority ethnic households are buying properties in greater disrepair than white households, and paying higher proportions of their incomes for owneroccupation. Opportunities for policy development are also identified. Third, H., Wainwright, S. and Pawson, H. (1997) Constraint and Choice for Minority Ethnic Households in the Home Ownership Market in Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish Homes. Includes some of the material from Third and MacEwen (1997) above. Thompson, P. A. and Campbell, S. (1992) Housing Gypsies. Cardiff: Cardiff Law School. Demonstrates a lack of awareness amongst the gypsies surveyed of Government proposals to reform the Caravan Sites Act 1968 and highlights a lack of interest in permanent accommodation. Todd, M. (1996) Opening Doors: an evaluation of the cultural sensitivity of offender hostel provision in Greater Manchester. Manchester: Greater Manchester Probation Service, HPAS, University of Manchester. As title.

Tomlins, R. (1994) Housing associations and race equality. Housing Review, 43(2), 26-27. Review of the findings and processes of the CRE investigation into the housing association movement (published as CRE 1993a above). Tomlins, R. (1995) Implementing race equality in housing associations. Housing Review, 44(2), 42-43. Report of a Housing Centre Trust seminar to examine ways of implementing housing association race equality policies. The article includes perspectives: from the Housing Corporation on the regulatory framework; from the CRE on race equality policies; and from the housing association movement on the implementation of paper policies, training strategies and the role of the management committee in bringing about equal opportunities change. It is noted that a common theme of the seminar stressed the need for an association to take a corporate view of the implementation of equal opportunities policies. Tomlins, R. (1996) Towards a pluralistic ethnic housing policy. Planning, Practice and Research, 11(2), 167-175. Emphasises the importance of developing pluralistic systems of housing provision in order to be able to meet the housing needs of ethnically diverse communities. The article challenges the popular objective of seeking to break down racial and ethnic segregation through the assimilation of minority ethnic communities within structures determined and led by the majority community.

Tomlins, R. (1997a) Officer discretion and minority ethnic housing provision. Netherlands Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 12(2), 179-197. This article argues that fears about the actions of unaccountable housing associations are based upon a falsely grounded nostalgia for local state housing. The potential for housing associations to develop more responsive policies than the local authority sector is examined. Primary research from a major British housing association is used to focus upon the opportunities and constraints facing minority ethnic communities as a result of the discretionary role of social gatekeepers. Tomlins, R. (1997) BASE Trust Review 1995/6. Leicester, BASE Trust. Review of the operation since its inception of the BASE Trust, a charitable organisation set up to raise funds for the black and minority ethnic housing movement in the Midlands. The report makes particular reference to events in 1995/6. Tomlins, R. (1998) Race Equality Strategies and Organisational Change: the potential for junior officers to introduce a radical change agenda. Centre for Comparative Housing Research Working Paper 6. Leicester: Centre for Comparative Housing Research, De Montfort University. Examines the race equality performance of the housing association movement in addition to providing a theorisation of change processes. Tomlins, R. (1998) Race and Housing in the European Community. Centre for Comparative Housing Research Working Paper 7. Leicester: Centre for Comparative Housing Research, De Montfort University. Provides a thematic overview of the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities throughout the European Community including Britain. Tomson, K. (1988) Under Siege: racial violence in Britain today. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Includes discussion of housing issues. Tower Hamlets Homeless Families Campaign (nd) Out in the Cold: the use of intentionality to evict the

homeless in Tower Hamlets. London: Tower Hamlets Homeless Families Campaign with the support of Shelter and the Joint Council for the Welfare of Immigrants. Publication produced in response to a High Court decision in 1987 to declare Bangladeshi families who had left accommodation in Bangladesh to join longstanding residents of the UK as intentionally homeless and, therefore, not subject to permanent local authority rehousing duties. Tower Hamlets Homeless Families Campaign (nd) Just a Part of the Wall: a report on the services for homeless Bangladeshi women in Tower Hamlets. London: Tower Hamlets Homeless Families Campaign. Another report focusing on Tower Hamlets decision to apply the intentionality clause of the homelessness legislation to Bangladeshi households. The local authority is accused of intentionally dispersing Bangladeshi households in

temporary accommodation outside the borough and of avoiding communication with them. The report also includes a powerful discussion of other needs related to poor housing position, such as health and education problems. TPAS (1994) Working Together - Involving Black Tenants in Tenant Participation. London: TPAS London and South East. Good practice guide. TPAS (nd) Equal Opportunities. Salford: TPAS. Another attempt to ensure that tenants from minority ethnic communities are involved in tenant participation initiatives. Turkington, R, and Dixon, A. (1996) The housing needs of ethnic elders: the experience of black Caribbeans in Britain. In E. Komut (ed.), The Housing Question of the Others. Ankara: Chamber of Architects. As title. Turkington, R, and Dixon, A. (1997) Thinking Ahead: housing, care and the future for black elders. Birmingham: University of Central England, Birmingham. Focusing on the housing and care needs of African Caribbean elders in the West Midlands. University of Salford (1996a) Study of the Housing Needs of the Asian and African/Caribbean Communities in Peterborough. Salford: University of Salford. The statistical basis for the commentary in University of Salford (1996b) and cited in the literature review above as indicating the growth in demand amongst the Asian community for social sector housing in existing areas of residence and the importance of the informal, rather than the formal, provision of care in minority ethnic communities. University of Salford (1996b) The Housing Needs of the Asian and African/Caribbean Community of Peterborough: the implications of the survey findings. Salford: University of Salford. Examines the implications of the University of Salford (1996a above) study.

Verm, M. (1985) Housing Needs of Black and Asian Women in Relation to Battering and Matrimonial Breakdown. London: Hounslow Asian Womens Centre. As title. Virdee, S. (1995) Racial Violence and Harassment. London: Policy Studies Institute. Important general study of racial harassment

Wainwright, S., Murie, A. and MacEwen, M. (1994) The Experience of Households from Minority Ethnic Groups in the Scottish Housing System. Research Report No. 29. Edinburgh: Scottish Homes. Qualitative study of the personal housing histories of minority ethnic groups. The report draws attention to the importance of employment position in shaping housing outcomes, perceptions of the unresponsiveness of private and public sector housing providers and the fear of racial harassment. Minority ethnic groups expressed a tenure preference for owner-occupation although this was a preference which was shaped by the way in which it facilitated access to particular property types and geographical areas and which also reflected the constraints in access to the rented sector. Walker, R. and Ahmad, W. I. U. (1994) Windows of opportunity in rotting frames: care providers perspectives on community care and black communities. Critical Social Policy, 40, 46-69. As title. Wallis, S. (1974/75) Pakistanis in Britain. Community, IV(1), 105-115. Some reference to housing issues, including continuing need for hostel accommodation and barriers to local authority accommodation.

New the the

Wallis, S. (1977) Urban Deprivation, Racial Inequality and Social Policy: a report. London: HMSO. The report outlines the extent of housing disadvantage faced by minority ethnic communities. Wallis notes that local authority housing departments generally ignored issues of race, and hence, specific needs, although some did demonstrate positive initiatives, for example facilitating access to owner-occupation. Central government policies are seen as a key obstacle to further progress, along with fear of a white backlash, although a number of authorities were willing to try and influence public opinion in order to remove this barrier to innovatory practice. Wallman, S. (1975) A street Community, IV(4), 517-523.

in

Waterloo.

New

Focuses on the decision to demolish an ethnically diverse street. Walsh, D. (1987) Racial Harassment Research Paper No. 3. Glasgow: SEMRU. As title.

in

Glasgow.

Walter, B. (1980) Time-space patterns of second-wave Irish immigrants into British towns. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series 5, 297-317. As title. Walter, B. (1984) Tradition second-wave Irish settlement C. G. Clarke, D. Ley and C. and Ethnic Pluralism. London: As title.

and ethnic interaction: in Luton and Bolton. In Peach (eds.), Geography Allen and Unwin.

Walter, B. (1986) Ethnicity and Irish residential distribution. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 11(2), 131-146. As title. Wandsworth Community Relations Council (1977) West Side Story: a report on community relations and council housing in Roehampton/Putney area. London: Wandsworth CRC. As title. Ward, R. (1971) Coloured Families in Council Housing: progress and prospects in Manchester. Manchester: Manchester Council for Community Relations. As title. Ward, R. (1977/78) Urban structure, the housing market and race relations (a research note). New Community, VI(1 and 2), 127-129. Outlines the work of the SSRC Research Unit on Ethnic Relations at the University of Bristol, (now the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations at the University of Warwick). Ward, R. (1978) Race relations in Britain. British Journal of Sociology, XXIV, 4, 464-483. As title. Ward, R. (1978) Where race didnt divide: some reflections on slum clearance in Moss Side, Manchester. In R. Miles and A. Phizacklea (eds.), Racism and Political Action in Britain. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 204-222. Seeks to explain the development of multi-racial housing action groups in Moss-Side in contrast with the ethnic divisions around these issues in other areas. Ward emphases the importance of a history of protest activity, which had not been based on racial divisions, a strong base for lobbying through the existence of different, though largely compatible, organisations, and in addition a relatively homogeneous socio-economic composition of the area. Ward, R. (1981) Race, inequality and public housing (a review article). New Community, IX(2), 307-312. Includes consideration of Simpsons (1981 above) Stacking the Decks.

Ward, R. (1982) Race, housing and wealth. New Community, X(1), 3-15. Focusing on the impact of the commodification of housing on minority ethnic households in London, Bradford and Birmingham. Ward, R. (1984a) Race, housing and wealth. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 113-129. As Ward 1982 (above).

Ward, R. (1984) Differential treatment in housing: issues and approaches. In R. Ward (ed.), Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston, 1-18. Brief overview of race and housing issues, including the role of choice in housing outcomes, the differential treatment of minority ethnic communities, the remedies offered by the free market and the competing case for market intervention. Ward, R. (ed.) (1984) Race and Residence in Britain: approaches to differential treatment in housing. Birmingham: RUER, University of Aston. Edited collection including Ward, Fenton and Flett. Articles referred to individually within this bibliography. Ward, R. (1984) Race and housing: issues and policies. New Community, XI(3), 201-205. Identifies trends in race and housing research and plots three phases of housing issues: (i) initial concentration of economic immigrants in slum housing; (ii) racial bias in relocation to family welfare housing; and (iii) external events stimulating policy developments, notably legislation on equal access to housing, attempts at the management of integration, ethnic monitoring and comprehensive policy on equal opportunities in housing. (p.201) Ward, R. (1987) Race and access to housing. In S. J. Smith and J. Mercer (eds.), New Perspectives on Race and Housing. Studies in Housing 2. Glasgow: Centre for Housing Research, 182-218. Ward outlines the post war housing experiences of minority ethnic communities and the difficulties which they have faced in satisfying their housing demands. He emphasises the continuing housing disadvantage experienced by minority ethnic households because of discrimination and general developments in housing policy and notes changes in the focus of housing research.

Ward, R., Nowikowski, S. and Fenton, M. (1981) Settlement in the suburbs: an analysis of Asians in Manchester. International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, XVIII(1 and 2), 103-134. As title. Ward, R., Nowikowski, S. and Fenton, M. (1982) Middle class Asians and their settlement in Britain. In J. Solomos (ed.), Migrant Workers in Metropolitan Cities. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation, 153173. Based on a study of Manchester, Ward et al argue that Asian big business families (p.169) and many Asian professionals were facing little discrimination in accessing high quality suburban housing, although many Asian professionals were also continuing to live in the inner city. Nevertheless, Ward et al suggest that these outcomes and the experiences of the lower middle class require further study before firm conclusions can be reached regarding the extent of discrimination faced in the housing market. They emphasise that their findings should not automatically be assumed to be typical of other urban areas. Ward, R. and Sims, R. (1981) Social status, the market and ethnic segregation. In C. Peach, V. Robinson and S. J. Smith (eds.), Ethnic Segregation in Cities. London: Croom Helm, 217-234. Uses Weberian models of social segregation to seek a greater understanding of spatial patterns. Warnes, T. (1996) The age structure and ageing of the ethnic groups. In D. Coleman and J. Salt (eds.), Ethnicity in the 1991 Census. Volume One: demographic characteristics of the ethnic minority populations. London: HMSO, 151-177. Identifies issues for housing providers. Waterman, S. (1987) Jews in an Outer London Suburb: Barnet. London: Board of Deputies of British Jews. As title. Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1986) Mapping an unenumerated ethnic population: Jews in London. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9(4), 484-501. As title.

Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1986) British Jewry in the Eighties: a geographical and statistical guide. London: Board of Deputies of British Jews. As title. Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1986) The distribution of Jews in the United Kingdom, 1984. Geography, 71, 60-65. As title. Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1987) Residential change in a middle-class suburban ethnic population: a comment. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 12(1), 107-112. As title. Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1988) Residential patterns and processes: a study of Jews in three London boroughs. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 13(1), 79-85 As title. Waterman, S. and Kosmin, B. A. (1987) Ethnic identity, residential concentration and social welfare: the Jews in London. In P. Jackson (ed.), Race and Racism: essays in social geography. London: Allen and Unwin, 254-274. Outlines the continuing residential concentration of the Jewish community in London and identifies issues for further research. Webster, C. (1995) Racial Attacks in Northern England: qualitative aspects of the Keighley Crime Survey. Paper presented to the BSA Conference, University of Leicester. Conference paper cited above. Wellman, D. (1977) Portraits of White Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cited above in Karn (1983).

Racism.

Werbner, P. (1979) Avoiding the ghetto: Pakistani migrants and settlement shifts in Manchester. New Community, VII(3), 376-389. Argues that changes in the settlement patterns of the Pakistani community have been ignored and that

movement rather than stability is the distinctive feature of Pakistani immigrants settlement patterns (p.376). Werbner adds that Asian communities, more generally, have excellent knowledge of the housing market and are prepared to move outside areas of existing minority ethnic residence, largely for status reasons and to benefit from the economic gains available from regular house moves. Werbner argues that the Pakistani men in the case study were quite willing to live outside existing areas of minority ethnic residence since they did not rely on spatial networks and indeed saw these as female-dominated networks (p.383). West, C. and Lemos, G. (1996) Flair in the Community. London: London Federation of Housing Associations. Focuses on the positive community benefits provided by black and minority ethnic housing associations and argues that it is vitally important for the Housing Corporation to maintain its revenue and other support for these organisations given their crucial strategic role in meeting the needs of minority ethnic communities. West Midlands Fair Housing Action Group (1984) Annual Report 1984. Birmingham: West Midlands Fair Housing Action Group. Short pamphlet outlining the aims of the group and focusing on the performance of local authorities and housing associations in the West Midlands. Wilkinson, R. K. and Gulliver, S. (1971) The impact of non-whites on house prices. Race, 13(1), 21-36. As title. Wilkinson, T. (1974) Uganda Asians in Leicester: initial resettlement. New Community, III(1/2), 147149. Includes reference to housing issues. Suggests that housing outcomes had improved since the beginning of 1973. Williams, F. (1989) Social Policy: a critical introduction. London: Polity. One of the major texts arguing for the inclusion of race in the discussion of social policy and drawing

attention to its marginalisation academic discussion.

in

political

and

Williams, P. (1976) The role of institutions in the London housing market. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 1(1), 72-82. As title.

Wilson, M. (1998) Directory of Planning Policies for Gypsy Site Provision in England. Bristol: The Policy Press. As title. Winchester, S. W. C. (1974/75) Immigrant areas in Coventry in 1971. New Community, IV(1), 97-104. Focuses on spatial patterns, notes that the Pakistani community demonstrated the highest degree of segregation. Wing Kwong, L. A. and Kerrie, P. K. Lin Au (1994) Accommodating the Chinese Community. Manchester: HACT/Tung Sing HA. As title. Wong, M. L. (1989) Chinese Liverpudlians: a history of the Chinese community in Liverpool. Liverpool: Liver Press. Includes discussion of settlement patterns and the process of finding accommodation. Woods, R. I. (1975) The Stochastic Analysis of Immigrant Distributions. Research Paper No. 11. Oxford: University of Oxford School of Geography As title. Woods, R. I. (1976) Aspects of the race problem in the calculation of segregation indices: London and Birmingham, 1961 and 1971. Journal of Social and Economic Geography, 67, 169-174. As title. Woods, R. I. (1977) Population turnover, tipping points and Markov chains. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, II(4), 473-489. As title. Woods, R. I. (1979) Ethnic segregation in Birmingham in the 1960s and 1970s. Ethnic and Racial Studies, II(4), 455-476. As title. Woods, R. I. (1981) Spatiotemporal modes of ethnic segregation and their implications for housing policy. Environment and Planning, 13(11), 1415-1433.

As title.

Ye-Myint, C. (1992) Whos Hiding: a report into nonpriority homelessness amongst people from black and ethnic communities in Tower Hamlets. London: No Fixed Abode. Argues people from minority ethnic communities are overwhelmingly...affected by non-priority homelessness (p.46). Ye-Myint highlights the importance in bringing about these outcomes of factors such as low income, overcrowding, mental illness, refugee status, racial harassment, shortage of social housing, social housing policies, the absence of effective proactive race equality strategies in the voluntary sector and lack of statutory provision. Recommendations are made for the greater availability of interpreters and translated material, ethnic monitoring, a minimum of temporary accommodation for all young homeless, the sponsorship of black and minority ethnic housing associations, training on the causes of non-priority homelessness for providers of services and attention to health issues. Young, K. and Gay, P. (1986) The Race Relations Adviser in Local Government. London: Policy Studies Institute/Local Authorities Race Relations Information Exchange. As title.

Some Standing Sources and Web Sites The following bodies have an interest in race and housing, although most cover the wider aspects of either race or housing. Some of them publish periodicals. These are listed separately at the end of this section and can be ordered through the publishing body or sometimes through the website of the organisation. Organisations

Catholic Housing Aid Society 209 Old Marylebone Road London NW1 5QT 0171 723 7273 www.chasnat.demon.co.uk Occasionally publishes on race equality issues. website contains annotated links.

The

Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL 01203 524869 01203 523605 (CRER Resources Centre) www.warwick.ac.uk/CRER The Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations (CRER) is the UKs leading academic body for the study and teaching of matters concerning racism, migration and ethnic relations. CRERs Resources Centre houses the collection of materials relating to minority ethnic communities and migration, including an extensive collection of published and unpublished research reports, periodicals published by interest groups, an indexed press cuttings archive and collection of statistics. The keyworded citations of reports and some periodical articles can be searched on the website, although not all holdings are represented there. Chartered Institute of Housing Octavia House

Westwood Way Coventry CV4 8JP 01203 851700 www.cih.org www.focusnet.co.uk/cih/ (London branch) The professional organisation for housing practitioners. Publishes best practice publications and standards manuals containing reference to race equality issues. (See Inside Housing and Housing under Periodicals below.)

Commission for Racial Equality 10/12 Allington Street London SW1E 5EH 0171 828 7022 www.cre.gov.uk The CREs work is extensively referenced above. However, there are other CRE sources which provide information on race equality issues in housing, such as its Annual Report. Several such publications, including a downloadable factsheet, are advertised on their website. The CRE also publishes the quarterly Connections. Federation of Black Housing Organisations 137 Euston Road London NW1 2AA 0171 837 8288 The representative body of the black and minority ethnic social housing sector. Publisher of Black Housing and the Yearbook Directory. (which can be ordered by email from Pearson Press: [email protected]). HACT (Housing Associations Charitable Trust) Yeoman House 168-172 Old Street London EC1V 9BP Charitable Trust which has been an important source of funding for black and minority ethnic housing organisations and research into race equality issues. Housing Corporation 149 Tottenham Court Road London W1P 0BN 0171 393 2000 www.demon.co.uk/hcorp/index.html helios.bre.co.uk/igp (Innovation and Good Practice and Research Database - searchable) This public body supports social housing working with Registered Social Landlords, (the housing association sector). It has a research and publications section

and regularly funds and publishes research on race equality issues. Joseph Rowntree Foundation The Homestead 40 Water End York YO3 6LP www.jrf.org.uk Regularly funds and publishes research on race equality issues. Publications can be ordered via the searchable website. LARRIE Layden House 76-86 Turnmill Street London EC1M 5QU 0171 296 6600 0171 296 6781 (enquiry service) The Local Authorities Race Relations Information Exchange (LARRIE) is a charity administered by The Local Government Management Board and has a database of over 12,500 abstracts of local authority committee reports, including race and housing issues, drawn from over 150 local authorities. There is an enquiry service and quarterly publication, Whats New: LARRIEs Quarterly Update. Local Government Information Unit 1-5 Bath Street London EC1V 9QQ 0171 608 1051 www.lgiu.gov.uk The LGIU is an independent research and information organisation supported by councils and local government trade unions. It produces Equalities News and other publications which can be found on the searchable website. Local Government Management Board Layden House 76-86 Turnmill Street London EC1M 5QU 0171 296 6600

The LGMB provides services to local authorities in England and Wales with particular focus on management, personnel and governance issues, including equality aspects. London Equal Opportunities Federation 23 Lewisham High Street London SE13 5AF The LEOF promotes the use of black and minority ethnic owned building and design contractors, in addition to those owned by women and disabled people. It currently deals with approximately 90 housing organisations and encourages them not only to consider the use of its member contractors, but also more widely to apply equality principles to the appointment of contractors and consultants.

National Housing Federation 175 Grays Inn Road London WC1X 8UP 0171 278 6571 www.housing.org.uk The representative body for Registered Social Landlords (housing associations). It funds and publishes reports on race equality issues of interest to its members. Publications can be found on the website, including free briefings and booklets in the Info Shop. National Housing and Town Planning Council 14/18 Old Street London EC1V 9AB Publishers of Housing and Planning Review. Runnymede Trust 133 Aldersgate Street London EC1A 4JA www.fhit.org/runnymede Charity with remit to equality issues.

address

racial

justice

and

Scottish Homes Thistle House 91 Haymarket Street Edinburgh EH12 5HE www.scot-homes.gov.uk Scottish Homes is the National Housing Agency for Scotland It was set up in April 1989 and is funded by the Government. This organisation funds housing development in Scotland in addition to managing its own stock of social housing. Scottish Homes also sponsors research, including race equality projects. The searchable website contains information about research and publications. Shelter 88 Old Street London EC1V 9HU 0171 505 2000

www.shelter.org.uk The national campaigning organisation for homeless people which periodically publishes research into the housing experiences of minority ethnic communities. Publications, including Roof, are listed on the website.

Publications Publications organisations Black Housing mainly either items on race

listed below are produced by listed above. With the exceptions of and the Yearbook Directory, they are about race or housing with occasional and housing.

Black Housing Black Housing is the most useful nonacademic publication for the race and housing researcher. Whilst, it is the in house publication of the Federation of Black Housing Organisations, it is not only a crucial means of communication and lobbying for the black and minority ethnic housing association movement, but is also an important source of information on the impact of specific housing problems, such as homelessness, on minority ethnic communities. There is also a regular directory of black and minority ethnic housing organisations published by the Federation of Black Housing Organisations. Connections The quarterly publication Racial Equality.

of

the

Commission

for

Equalities News Publication of the Local Government Information Unit, focusing on equality issues. Housing The monthly magazine of the Chartered Institute of Housing. It is targeted at housing practitioners and includes references to topical race equality issues. Housing and Planning Review Published by the National Housing Town Council and incorporates Housing Review.

Planning

Housing Today www.housingtoday.org.uk/text.htm The weekly news magazine of the National Housing Federation focusing on topical housing issues. Inside Housing www.atlas.co.uk/inside/

The weekly news magazine of the Chartered Institute of Housing focusing on topical housing issues. Roof The journal of the housing charity Shelter, which periodically focuses on the housing experiences of minority ethnic households. Runnymede Bulletin Publication of the times per year.

Runnymede

Trust,

published

ten

Whats New: LARRIEs Quarterly Update Publication of the Local Authorities Race Relations Information Exchange Yearbook Directory Publication of the Federation of Black Housing Organisations which can be ordered by email from Pearson Press: [email protected].