ACCESS ADAPT AND USE DATA FROM TEXTS LEARNER GUIDE

Future Performance Training

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Course purpose ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Course Outcomes: ................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Analyze text produced for a range of purposes .................................................................................................................. 4 Introduction to Reading Strategies ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Common Understandings About Reading ........................................................................................................................... 4 features in texts and their functionality ................................................................................................................................ 6 Reading Strategies .............................................................................................................................................................. 6 styles of reading .................................................................................................................................................................. 9 role of text features identified and evaluated ..................................................................................................................... 12 Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Information ........................................................................................................... 19 identify and critically explore textual features and language ........................................................................................... 22 Text Construction and Meaning Expression ...................................................................................................................... 22 Language and Style .......................................................................................................................................................... 24 process and index data from texts ..................................................................................................................................... 28 An Introduction to Content Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 28 Understands and interprets how text conventions work together to create meaning and effect ........................................ 30 The 4 Main Writing Styles: When and How You Should Use Them.................................................................................. 31 Tips for using writing techniques in business writing ......................................................................................................... 32 Grammar and language structures .................................................................................................................................... 32 Different types of visual aids ............................................................................................................................................. 37 Visual Aids ........................................................................................................................................................................ 39 Purpose, Emphasis, Support, and Clarity.......................................................................................................................... 39 Methods and Materials ...................................................................................................................................................... 40 Preparing Visual Aids ........................................................................................................................................................ 42 Using Visual Aids .............................................................................................................................................................. 42 Using PowerPoint as a Visual Aid ..................................................................................................................................... 43 Use of Colour .................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Helpful Hints for Visual Aids .............................................................................................................................................. 46 References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 47 Glossary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 47

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COURSE PURPOSE Competence at this level will require learners to be able to use analytical reading and viewing skills and strategies to extract meaning and to make informed judgements about cultural, social and workplace issues. They would have to become knowledgeable about, and should be able to critique, language use and textual features in texts.

Learners completing this course will become critical, reflective, and responsive readers and viewers of written and visual texts. They will be able to compare data in texts with those in real life situations. Learners can make and challenge the assumptions, inferences and values expressed in texts. They will also be able to access, process, and use data from different texts and adapt it for a wide variety of purposes and contexts.

COURSE OUTCOMES: This course will allow you to: •

Analyse and respond to texts produced for a range of purposes, audiences, and contexts in the workplace

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Identify and critically explore textual features and language usage in texts

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Access, index, and process data from various texts.

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ANALYSE TEXTS PRODUCED FOR A RANGE OF PURPOSES INTRODUCTION TO READING STRATEGIES As students’ progress through their careers, they are asked to read increasingly complex informational and graphical texts in their courses. The ability to understand and use the information in these texts is key to a student’s success in learning. •

Successful students have a repertoire of strategies to draw upon and know how to use them in different contexts.

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Struggling students need explicit teaching of these strategies to become better readers.

Struggling readers need: • knowledge of different types of texts and the best strategies for reading them. • multiple and meaningful opportunities to practise reading in subject-specific contexts. • opportunities to practise reading with appropriate resources. • opportunities to talk about their reading and thinking. • background knowledge in subject areas. • expanded sight vocabularies and word-solving strategies for reading subject-specific texts. • strategies for previewing texts, monitoring their understanding, determining the most important ideas and the relationships among them, remembering what they read, and making connections and inferences. • strategies for becoming independent readers in any context.

COMMON UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT READING Reading is the active process of understanding print and graphic texts. Reading is a thinking process. Effective readers know that when they read, what they read is supposed to make sense. They monitor their understanding, and when they lose the meaning of what they are reading, they often unconsciously select and use a reading strategy (such as rereading or asking questions) that will help them reconnect with the meaning of the text. Reading skills and strategies can be taught explicitly while students are learning subject-specific content through authentic reading tasks.

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Effective readers use strategies to understand what they read before, during, and after reading.

Before reading, they: • •

During reading, they:

After reading, they:

use prior knowledge to think

• monitor understanding by

•

about the topic.

questioning, thinking about, and

scanning to get a sense of the

make predictions about the

reflecting on the ideas and information

overall meaning.

probable meaning of the text.

in the text.

•

preview the text by skimming and

reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.

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relate what they have read to their own experiences and knowledge.

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clarify their understanding of the text.

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extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.

Students can be taught to be strategic and effective readers. Struggling readers benefit from a variety of instructional approaches that demonstrate reading skills as subject content is taught. Direct teaching, thinking aloud, modelling, discussion, and small group support is only a few of the approaches teachers use to help students become more strategic and effective readers in different contexts.

A well-designed textbook, website or other print resource has a variety of elements or features that are applied consistently to help the reader locate and use the material. Some texts have more of these features, and clearer cues, than others do. Previewing a course text can help students to identify the text features and use them efficiently. Purpose • Learn how to navigate subject-specific textbooks and resources. • Examine the layout and features of a particular text, and how to use it. Payoff Students will: • become familiar with different course texts and resources (print and electronic). • use strategies for effectively previewing and locating information in different texts, using the table of contents, indices and/or navigation bar. Tips and Resources Most informational texts use. •

a variety of visual, graphic and text features to organize information,

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highlight important ideas,

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illustrate key concepts, and

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provide additional information.

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Features may include headings, subheadings, table of contents, index, glossary, preface, paragraphs.

These are separated by, spacing, bulleted lists, sidebars, footnotes, illustrations, pictures, diagrams, charts, graphs, captions, italicized words or passages, boldface words or sections, colour, and symbols.

FEATURES IN TEXTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONALITY Titles Titles in texts are there to capture the readers’ attention, enticing them to further read the text. It creates an interest with the reader and explains the purpose of the text, usually in one short sentence or only a few key words.

Headings By making use of headings in text, you will differentiate between various sections in the text and, in short explain what the text under that specific heading will explain/explore.

Introductions The introduction is a short version of the text introducing the reader to what they can expect to find in the text. It gives them a brief outline of the information as well as what the purpose of the text is.

Paragraphs When giving out information, it is better to organise the text into sections, or paragraphs. It makes not only the reading better, but also enables the composer to break the text into easy reading “chunks” for the reader. It gives form to the text, rather than just placing all the text in one big block.

Conclusions Conclusions assist the author to re-iterate his/her point of view and give them one final opportunity to win over the readers’ interest. It is basically a summary of the text preceding the conclusion and a final word from the author, in getting the point across; or a way the subject in question is placed into context for the reader.

Outcome Statements Outcome statements are descriptions of specific knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA’s) that you should be able to apply after completing a reading and all associated exercises and problems. Each outcome statement includes a command word, such as “demonstrate,” “formulate,” or “evaluate,” that indicates the degree of understanding required.

READING STRATEGIES Good reading strategies help you to read in a very efficient way. Using them, you aim to get the maximum benefit from your reading with the minimum effort. This section will show you how to use six different strategies to read intelligently.

Strategy 1: Knowing what you want to know The first thing to ask yourself is: Why you are reading the text? Are you reading with a purpose or just for pleasure? What do you want to know after reading it? Once you know this, you can examine the text to see whether it is going to move you towards this goal. An easy way of doing this is to look at the introduction and the chapter headings. The introduction should Page 6 of 50

let you know whom the book is targeted at, and what it seeks to achieve. Chapter headings will give you an overall view of the structure of the subject. Ask yourself whether the book meets your needs. Ask yourself if it assumes too much or too little knowledge. If the book is not ideal, would it be better to find a better one?

Strategy 2: Knowing how deeply to study the material Where you only need the shallowest knowledge of the subject, you can skim material. Here you read only chapter headings, introductions, and summaries. If you need a moderate level of information on a subject, then you can scan the text. Here you read the chapter introductions and summaries in detail. You may then speed read the contents of the chapters, picking out and understanding key words and concepts. At this level of looking at the document it is worth paying attention to diagrams and graphs. Only when you need detailed knowledge of a subject is it worth studying the text. Here it is best to skim the material first to get an overview of the subject. This gives you an understanding of its structure, into which you can fit the detail gained from a full, receptive reading of the material. SQ3R is a good technique for getting a deep understanding of a text.

Strategy 3: Active Reading When you are reading a document in detail, it often helps if you highlight, underline, and annotate it as you go on. This emphasizes information in your mind and helps you to review important points later. Doing this also helps to keep your mind focused on the material and stops it wandering. This is obviously only something to do if you own the document! If you own the book and find that active reading helps, then it may be worth photocopying information in more expensive texts. You can then read and mark the photocopies. If you are worried about destroying the material, ask yourself how much your investment of time is worth. If the benefit you get by active reading reasonably exceeds the value of the book, then the book is disposable.

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Strategy 4: How to study different sorts of material Different sorts of documents hold information in different places and in different ways. They have different depths and breadths of coverage. By understanding the layout of the material, you are reading, you can extract useful information much more efficiently.

Reading Magazines and Newspapers: These tend to give a very fragmented coverage of an area. They will typically only concentrate on the most interesting and glamorous parts of a topic - this helps them to sell copies! They will often ignore less interesting information that may be essential to a full understanding of a subject. Typically, areas of useful information are padded out with large amounts of irrelevant waffle or with advertising. The most effective way of getting information from magazines is to scan the contents tables or indexes and turn directly to interesting articles. If you find an article useful, then cut it out and file it in a folder specifically covering that sort of information. In this way you will build up sets of related articles that may begin to explain the subject. Newspapers tend to be arranged in sections. If you read a paper often, you can learn quickly which sections are useful and which ones you can skip altogether.

Reading Individual Articles: Articles within newspapers and magazines tend to be in three main types: •

News Articles: Here the most important information is presented first, with information being less and less useful as the article progresses. News articles are designed to explain the key points first, and then flesh them out with detail.

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Opinion Articles: Opinion articles present a point of view. Here the most important information is contained in the introduction and the summary, with the middle of the article containing supporting arguments.

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Feature Articles: These are written to provide entertainment or background on a subject. Typically, the most important information is in the body of the text.

If you know what you want from an article, and recognize its type, you can extract information from it quickly and efficiently.

Strategy 5: Reading 'whole subject' documents When you are reading an important document, it is easy to accept the writer's structure of thought. This can mean that you may not notice that important information has been omitted or that irrelevant detail has been included. A good way of recognizing this is to compile your own table of contents before you open the document. You can then use this table of contents to read the document in the order that you want. You will be able to spot omissions quickly.

Strategy 6: Using glossaries with technical documents If you are reading large amounts of difficult technical material, it may be useful to photocopy or compile a glossary. Keep this beside you as you read. It will probably also be useful to note down the key concepts in your own words and refer to them when necessary. Usually it is best to make notes as you go. Effective way of doing this includes creating Concept Maps or using the Cornell Note Taking System.

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STYLES OF READING Key points:

There are different strategies and techniques that you can use to read more effectively. These are: •

Knowing what you need to know, and reading appropriately

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Knowing how deeply to read the document: skimming, scanning, or studying

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Using active reading techniques to pick out key points and keep your mind focused on the material

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Using the table of contents for reading magazines and newspapers, and clipping useful articles

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Understanding how to extract information from different article types

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Creating your own table of contents for reviewing material

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Using indexes, tables of contents, and glossaries to help you assimilate technical information.

There are different styles of reading for different situations. The technique you choose will depend on the purpose for reading. For example, you might be reading for enjoyment, information, or to complete a task. If you are exploring or reviewing, you might skim a document. If you are searching for information, you might scan for a word. To get detailed information, you might use a technique such as SQ3R. You need to adjust your reading speed and technique depending on your purpose. Many people consider skimming and scanning search techniques rather than reading strategies. However, when reading large volumes of information, they may be more practical than reading. For example, you might be searching for specific information, looking for clues, or reviewing information. Web pages, novels, textbooks, manuals, magazines, newspapers, and mail are just a few of the things that people read every day. Effective and efficient readers learn to use many styles of reading for different purposes. Skimming, scanning, and critical reading are different styles of reading and information processing.

Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you are probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research. There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or colour. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin. Reading off a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more difficulty reading off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend at the same rate as paper, skimming on the computer is much slower than on paper. Page 9 of 50

Active Reading Active reading is a process or technique of actively engaging with the text we are reading. Often, we read passively—that is, we take in the information we read without questioning its validity and without making personal connections with the text. When we passively read, we do not gain as much from our reading as when we actively read.

Why Actively Read? In “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” Nicholas Carr claims deep reading is tied to deep thinking. If this claim is true, then moving beyond surface level readings in a way that truly engages with the text can help us develop our abilities to think more clearly and more intelligently about a topic and about the world in which we live.

Additionally, active reading, as opposed to the passive reading, we do when skimming items or reading for pleasure, can help us •

Save time because we pay more attention to what we read the first time and do not waste time rereading.

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Prepare us for exams because we gain a more in-depth knowledge of the material.

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Stay informed about a subject that interests us.

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Develop exposure to new ideas or have familiar concepts reinforced.

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Create a deeper understanding of life’s complexities.

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Achieve intellectual growth.

Goals of Active Reading When we read actively, we try to understand the text thoroughly by reading slowly and carefully, pausing to question a main idea or to re-examine a passage that confuses us, and interpreting the larger meanings and implications of the text we’re reading. We try to keep our minds actively thinking about what the text means. In general, active reading allows us to •

Capture main ideas, key concepts, and details of reading.

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Target, reduce, and distil the needed information from the text.

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Engage with the text by making connections with our own knowledge and lives.

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Ask questions that help us think deeper about the content.

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Strategies for Active Reading Many techniques can help us read more actively. Here are a few of the main ones: •

Start by previewing the text.

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Scan the title, subtitle, footnotes, pictures, and headings in the text. What do these tell you about the topic being discussed in the reading?

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Think about what you know about the topic. You already know a great deal about many topics. What preconceived notions might you bring to the reading?

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Look for information about the author. What does the author’s other works tell you about his or her stance?

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Think about the rhetorical situation. What is the author’s purpose? Who is the author’s intended audience?

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Read the text carefully and write ideas about the text in the margins, on your own paper, or on sticky notes placed in the text.

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Circle and look up the definitions to words you do not know or cultural references that you are not familiar with.

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Underline the thesis or main idea.

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Ask questions about the text. Questions may consider topics such as the author’s purpose or goal in writing, his or her use of evidence to support claims, or his or her use of language. Pause to think of questions you have about the topic at various points in the reading.

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Make connections between your own life experiences or knowledge and the text. Does the argument agree with your prior experiences? Have you read other texts with similar arguments? Do you think most people would agree with the evidence presented in the text? Has your own life confirmed or denied any of the arguments in the text?

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Find patterns within the text. Does the writer use repetition to get a point across?

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Identify assumptions the author makes in presenting the argument. Are the assumptions valid? Do the author’s assumptions challenge your own? In what ways?

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Interpret key passages to find the underlying meaning. Are there parts of the texts that can be interpreted in multiple ways? How do you interpret key passages? What does the text really mean?

Reread the text. Review passages that are difficult. Now that you have read the text, can you more easily identify the meaning of difficult passages? What can you look up that might help you dissect the text’s meaning? •

Find shifts in points of view or in voice and identify any language that might cue you into the underlying meanings in the text.

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Paraphrase difficult passages by restating the passage in your own words.

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Create a summary of the text’s main argument in your own words.

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Try to describe the text to someone who has not read it.

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ROLE OF TEXT FEATURES IDENTIFIED AND EVALUATED Most of the books learners are required to read in learnerships are textbooks – books that summarize information about the subject matter of a learnership course. This unit standard emphasizes how to read textbooks because, if you are a full-time learnership learner, you will usually need to read, study, and learn the information in five or more textbooks each term.

The first step in reading a textbook is to acquire a quick overview of its contents by surveying it in the way summarized in “How to Preview a Textbook”. A preview provides you with an overview of a book and helps you to orient yourself for reading and studying it.

How to Preview a Textbook Before you read a textbook, examine the features in the front and back of the book.

Preview the front of the book. •

Read the title page to learn the title, author (or authors), and publisher of the book.

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Read the copyright page to find out what year the book was published.

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Read the table of contents to get an overview of the organization of the book and the major topics discussed in it.

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Read the preface or introduction to find out whether it describes special features that are provided in the book to help learners learn.

Preview the back of the book. • Determine whether an appendix follows the last chapter; if it is, find out what is in the appendix. • Check to see if there is a glossary at the end of the book or if there are short glossaries in each chapter. • Determine whether references are listed at the end of the book or at the end of each chapter. • Determine whether there is an index at the end of the book or if the book has a subject index and a name index.

The title pages Begin a preview by reading the title page. It gives exact information about the title of a book, the author or authors, the publisher, and the city in which the book was published. The title page is usually the second or third page in a book. When the title of a book is not followed by an edition number, it is the first edition and when more than one city is listed on a title page; the book was published in the first city listed.

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The copyright page After you have read the title page, read the page that follows it-the copyright page. A copyright page tells when a book was published. When more than one year is listed in the copyright information, the book was published in the most recent year listed. The copyright year tells you whether the information in a book sufficiently up-to date is for your purposes. For instance, if you want to learn about the current tax laws of the United States, you will want to read a book with a very recent copyright date. On the other hand, if you want to learn how to give a speech, a book published ten years ago may give information that is sufficiently up to date for this purpose.

Table of contents Continue your preview by reading the table of contents, which provides an overview of the organization of a book and the major topics discussed in it. When a table of contents does not follow the copyright page, look for it following the preface or introduction

The preface/foreword or introduction A preface/foreword or an introduction explains why a book was written; it usually presents information about the purpose, philosophy, or contents of a book, and it often describes special features that are provided to help learners learn information in the book. These opening remarks are usually located on pages following the table of contents, but sometimes they appear before the table of contents. Most books have either a preface or a foreword or an introduction; some books have both.

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The appendix An appendix, which contains supplementary material, is usually located immediately after the last chapter. An appendix in a chemistry textbook may present an overview of the mathematics important to know in chemistry, and an appendix in an English textbook may explain how to punctuate and capitalize when writing. However, many textbooks have no appendix.

The glossary A glossary is an alphabetically arranged list of important words and their definitions. When a glossary is included in a book, it is usually located after the last chapter or after the appendix. A textbook that has no glossary at the end may have short Glossaries at the end of each chapter.

The references The references, a bibliography, or notes are lists of publications and other sources that an author quotes or refers to in a book. References are usually listed at the end of a textbook, following the glossary or last chapter. When they are not at the end of a book, they may be listed at the end of each chapter. Textbooks for subjects such as English, speech, and mathematics usually have no references.

The index An index is an alphabetically arranged list of subjects and the numbers of the pages on which the subjects are discussed in a book. When an index is included in a book, it is on the very last pages. Some books have two indexes: a subject index and a name index, or author index. When a name index (or author index) is included in a book, it is located before the subject index. If you do not find the name of a person in an index, look to see if the book has a name index

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Preview One of the most common assignments in learnerships is to read a chapter of a textbook. Most learners undertake this kind of assignment by turning to the first page of a chapter and reading it through to the last page. This is not an efficient way to read and study the chapters in textbooks. Experienced learners know that it is more effective to preview a chapter before reading it. When you preview a chapter, you learn things that make it possible for you to read the chapter with greater understanding. Read “How to Preview a Chapter”.

How to Preview a Chapter Use the following steps to preview a chapter before you read it: 1. Preview the beginning of a chapter. •

Read the title and introduction to learn the topic and purpose of the chapter.

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If there are learning goals at the beginning of the chapter, read them to find out what you are supposed to learn when you study the chapter.

2. Preview the body of the chapter. •

Read the headings throughout the chapter to find out what topics are discussed in it.

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Examine graphs, diagrams, pictures, cartoons, and other visual material in the chapter.

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Scan any inserts or marginal notes.

3. Preview the end of the chapter. •

If there is an easy-to-understand summary at the end of the chapter, read it to get a quick overview of the important information or ideas discussed in the chapter.

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If terminology is listed at the end of the chapter, read it to find out what new words you are supposed to learn when you study the chapter.

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If there are review questions at the end of the chapter, read them to get an idea of the types of questions you may have to answer about chapter content when you take a test.

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If there are exercises or problems at the end of the chapter, read them to understand what skills you are expected to learn when you study the chapter.

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Title and Introduction Begin a preview by reading the chapter title and the introduction to the chapter. The title and introduction should summarize what the chapter is about, and an introduction may state the main purpose of the chapter. Whether an introduction to a chapter is short or long, read it carefully as part of your preview.

Headings Continue a chapter preview by reading the headings to learn what topics are discussed in the chapter. Textbook designers use a variety of methods to show the relationships between headings. •

The size of a heading indicates its importance; the larger the heading, the more important it is.

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A heading in boldface or a special colour (such as red) is more important than a heading of the same size that is not in boldface or a special colour.

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A heading printed above a paragraph is more important than a heading printed on the first line of a paragraph.

The Opening Chapter The first chapter of a textbook is one of the most important. Here the author sets the stage for what is to follow. At first glance, the first chapter may not seem to say much, and you may be tempted to skip it. Actually, the opening chapter deserves close attention. It presents the framework for the text. More important, it introduces the important terminology used throughout the text. Typically, you can expect to find as many as forty to sixty new words introduced and defined in the first chapter. These words are the language of the course, so to speak. To be successful in any new subject area, it is essential to learn to read and speak its language.

Typographical Aids Textbooks contain various typographical aids (arrangements or types of print) that make it easy to pick out what is important to learn and remember. These include the following:

1. Italic type (slanted print) is often used to call attention to a particular word or phrase. Often new terms are printed in italics in the sentence in which they are defined.

2. Enumeration refers to the numbering or lettering of facts and ideas within a paragraph. It is used to emphasize key ideas and to make them easy to locate. Example: Consumer behaviour and the buying process involve five mental states: (1) awareness of the product, (2) interest in acquiring it, (3) desire or perceived need, (4) action, and (5) reaction or evaluation of the product.

3. Headings and subheadings divide the chapters into sections and label the major topic of each section. Basically, they tell in advance what each section will be about. When read in order, the headings, and subheadings form a brief outline of the chapter.

4. Coloured print is used in some texts to emphasize important ideas or definitions. Page 16 of 50

How textbook chapters are organised You can easily feel lost and confused when reading textbook chapters, too. A chapter can seem like a huge, disorganized collection of facts, ideas, numbers, dates, and events to be memorized. Actually, a textbook chapter is, in one respect, much like a large supermarket. It, too, has signs that identify what is located in each section. These signs are the headings that divide the chapter into topics. Underneath each heading, similar ideas are grouped together, just as similar products are grouped together in a supermarket. Sometimes a group of similar or related ideas is labelled by a subheading (usually set in smaller type than the heading and/or indented differently). In most cases, several paragraphs come under one heading. In this way chapters take a major idea, break it into its important parts, and then break those parts into smaller parts.

Notice that this chapter has three major headings and that the first major heading is divided into eight subheadings. Since the chapter is divided into three major headings, you know that it covers three major topics. You can also tell that the first major heading discusses eight types of textbook aids. Of course, the number of major headings, subheadings, and paragraphs under each will vary from chapter to chapter in a book.

When you know how a chapter is organized, you can use this knowledge to guide your reading. Once you are familiar with the structure, you will also begin to see how ideas are connected. The chapter will then seem orderly, moving from one idea to the next in a logical fashion.

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A general approach to graphics Graphics include tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, photographs, and maps. Here is a general step-by-step approach to reading graphics.

1. Read the title or caption. The title will identify the subject and may suggest what relationship is being described. 2. Discover how the graphic is organized. Read the column headings or labels on the horizontal and vertical axes. 3. Identify the variables. Decide what comparisons are being made or what relationship is being described. 4. Analyse the purpose. Based on what you have seen, predict what the graphic is intended to show. Is its purpose to show change over time, describe a process, compare costs, or present statistics? 5. Determine scale, values, or units of measurement. The scale is the ratio that a graphic has to the thing it represents. For example, a map may be scaled so that one inch on the map represents one mile. 6. Study the data to identify trends or patterns. Note changes, unusual statistics, unexplained variations. 7. Read the graphic along with corresponding text. Refer to the paragraphs that discuss the graphic. These paragraphs may explain certain features of the graphic and identify trends or patterns. 8. Make a brief summary note. In the margin, jot a brief note summarizing the trend or pattern the graphic emphasizes.

Writing will crystallize the idea in your mind and your note will be useful for reviewing. Graphic communication is communication using devices such as tables, bar graphs, line graphs, cartoons, pictures, and pictograms. These graphic devices often combine numbers, shapes and words. They are sometimes called non-verbal communication.

However, this book defines them as graphics and graphic communication because words are often included. The term nonverbal communication should be reserved for the type of communication called body language. Graphic devices are very useful for showing relationships that would take a great deal of writing to explain. They give a quick visual impression and help readers to compare amounts easily. Good visuals have a greater impact than just the written or spoken word on its own. Graphic devices should be properly integrated into a text. Each graphic should be placed into the text where it is needed. It should be introduced, and should then be analysed below, once the reader has had an opportunity to examine it.

The purposes of graphic devices Graphic devices help senders to communicate more effectively. They: •

Show groups of numbers that would be very difficult to show in a written message.

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Show relationships that would take many sentences to explain.

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Give a quick visual impression that enables a reader to compare amounts quickly.

These devices include elements that a writer cannot use. These elements include: •

The use of space as in tables.

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The use of shapes, as in bar graphs, illustrations, or pictograms.

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The use of colours to make points stand out.

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The use of lines, as in line graphs and algorithms to show relationships, and stage-by-stage procedures.

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The use of more than one dimension such as length, breadth and even depth.

Graphic devices have the great advantage that the audience can see all the components and relationships at once. In a written message, on the other hand, the reader has to follow the information in a fixed sequence. Good visuals have a Page 18 of 50

greater impact than just the spoken or written word. A combination of the spoken and visual can be up to twice as powerful as the spoken message on its own. In the same way graphic devices add visual appeal to a written message. They also help to explain difficult ideas, show relationships, simplify, and summarize.

Hyperlinks Hyperlinks (often just called links) are the connections between Web pages. Links are the heart of the World Wide Web. Clicking a link takes you from the page you are viewing to another page, or perhaps to an image. Links can also be used to play sounds, movies, or to let you download a file. They are usually text, and are normally displayed as blue, underlined words. The colour of a link changes to purple once you have visited it. This colour change helps you keep track of which links you have and have not been to. However, as you surf the Web, you will doubtless run across many variations on the standard approach. Among the most common are image links and image maps. Images are any graphic, ranging from photographs to drawings.

Regular images just appear, unadorned, on the Web page you are viewing. Image links, though, are outlined in a blue rectangle, thus helping you recognize them as such. With both text and image links, you simply click the link to go to a new page. Image maps are not outlined in blue but are usually recognizable due to the fact that they are composed of a variety of separate images grouped together, with each different image holding an obvious meaning. Many image maps are actual geographical maps, just like you would see in an atlas. You may, for instance, run across an image map of South Africa. Clicking one of the provinces might take you to information about a company’s offices and plants in that province. If you wonder if an image is an image map or not, just run your mouse across it and observe the changes in the status line of your browser. If it is an image map, different Web addresses appear in the status line as you move the mouse pointer across the image map. It is possible for Web designers to create links that do not look like the normal ones, and you will often find these on Web sites that use a magazine style for their layout, like the one in the figure on the bottom right. A basic rule is if it looks like a table of contents, it is a set of links. To be certain, just move your pointer over a suspected link and see if a Web address appears in your status line.

ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, AND EVALUATION OF INFORMATION Critical examination of texts, images, and other sources of information 1. Identify and analyse the main idea(s) and point(s) of view in sources. a) Read an editorial or opinion column from a major newspaper, periodical, or Internet blog, identify the author’s main idea(s) and point(s) of view, and evaluate the credibility of evidence used b. Evaluate the message and the techniques used to influence public opinion in a variety of media (e.g., film, television, Internet, editorial cartoons).

2. Situate an informational source in its appropriate contexts (contemporary, historical, cultural). Page 19 of 50

a) Analyse a film’s presentation of a historical event and the factors influencing this interpretation. b) Analyse a novel’s presentation of a historical event and the factors influencing this interpretation. c) Examine the coverage of an important event in several major newspapers (e.g., The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal) and analyse differences in perspective. 3. Evaluate sources from multiple perspectives. a) Examine the U. S. Constitution as a living document and why it has been subject to different interpretations. b) Analyse the Equal Rights Amendment and explain why it generated controversy in the United States. c) Examine the founding of the United Nations and use sources from different countries to prepare a presentation on its effectiveness at accomplishing its original mission. 4. Understand the differences between a primary and secondary source and use each appropriately to conduct research and construct arguments. a) Identify and collect credible and high-quality primary and secondary sources that are germane to a given topic. b) Create an argument (e.g., an essay, letter to the editor, verbal presentation) that uses relevant primary sources. 5. Read narrative texts critically. a) Preview book-length texts by reading introductory material and examining organizational strategies and sources to determine key questions and issues explored. b) Write a review of a social science text that evaluates the main arguments and the quality of supporting evidence. Conclude with any questions and points of clarification needed to understand the argument. 6. Read research data critically. a) Analyse the results of a public opinion poll noting the size of the polling sample, the margin of error, the manner in which questions were constructed, and the respondent categories. b) Examine data in any research document carefully to ensure that collected data were gathered in conformity with high standards of research, and that borrowed data came from respected sources, such as the U.S. Census Bureau. B. Research and methods 1. Use established research methodologies. a) Propose or present theories only when they are supported by extensive credible research and when other possible theories have been eliminated by the evidence. b) Understand the concept of independent and dependent variables and apply it correctly in developing hypotheses regarding social phenomena (e.g., crime, divorce rates, rates of population growth).. 2. Explain how historians and other social scientists develop new and competing views of past phenomena. Page 20 of 50

a) Compare and contrast two works of history that disagree over the causes of the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, and explain how the authors came to different conclusions. b) Demonstrate, using specific examples, how historians or other social scientists can come to different perceptions and conclusions about historical events, such as the Great Depression, by using different types of sources and data. c) Analyse a specific event based on the works of various social scientists and develop an essay that demonstrates points of contention and agreement among these scholars. 3. Gather, organize, and display the results of data and research. a) Display relative quantitative or cartographic information when presenting research analysis in appropriate fashion, such as databases, spreadsheets, GIS, image analysis tools, or graphs. b) Create, administer, and report on a survey of fellow classmates’ positions on an issue. c) Examine the voting data for particular elections and analyse aspects of voter activity. 4. Identify and collect sources. a) Collect credible primary and secondary sources that provide various points of view on a selected topic. b) Use a library database to identify key academic journals relevant to the research question at hand. c) Create an annotated bibliography on a specific topic. C. Critical listening 1. Understand and interpret presentations (e.g., speeches, lectures, informal presentations) critically. a) Analyse a speech of historical importance (such as Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, Ronald Reagan’s 1987 Brandenburg Gate speech, or Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech) and summarize its main points. b) Listen to a lecture and write down questions that require clarification, either by consulting the lecturer or other students. c) Listen to a lecture and connect the new information with previously studied topics. D. Reaching conclusions 1. Construct a thesis that is supported by evidence. a) Develop a thesis statement, outline, and organizational strategy that will be used to support the thesis in a written paper. b) Utilize the conventions of the discipline and a variety of sources to write a research paper on a topic germane to a given course. 2. Recognize and evaluate counter arguments. Page 21 of 50

a) Write a short paper advocating a specific cause or action on an important national issue, such as federal immigration policy. Acknowledge counterarguments and explain why your position is preferable to the counterargument(s). Cite evidence that strengthens your argument. b) Identify and summarize relevant primary or secondary sources that pose contradictory arguments on an issue.

IDENTIFY AND CRITICALLY EXPLORE TEXTUAL FEATURES AND LANGUAGE TEXT CONSTRUCTION AND MEANING EXPRESSION The purpose of any text (spoken or written) is to express meanings for the sake of sharing information – moving an idea from one person to another. Meaning expression is a complex process because it involves at least two different people. When we have an idea to convey, we look for appropriate evidence and analogies. We combine words into phrases, and phrases into sentences according to grammar rules. We link sentences into paragraphs and paragraphs into text. Text becomes a meaningful whole, an unfolding story, built from the assembled meaningful elements. The goal of a listener or reader who engages with your text is to construct meaning from your words. He or she will either understand or misunderstand your intention. But by carefully considering how you communicate; you can enhance the chances that what you mean will be understood. Therefore, it is important to develop your meaning expression skills. Consider your audience. Ask yourself what they might not know and include that information in your communication. A meeting of minds can only happen on common ground. Also pay attention to how you move from one idea to the next because giant steps can trip up or lose your audience. When you construct a text, think of it as taking your audience on a journey. You want the journey to be smooth and easy to follow instead of being twisty, bumpy, or disconnected. This journey starts on a path toward a destination. The destination is the topic of your text. The path must be clear at each step of the way, so your audience does not become lost. It helps to think of the path as a series of legs on the journey. These legs are subtopics that build and support the main topic. The legs are, in turn, constructed from steps. Each one moves the audience closer to the destination. No step should be too large for your audience to take. No leg should be so twisty that your audience becomes lost. Additionally, the journey should be no longer than is needed to reach the destination. Paths that cycle back on themselves or take meaningless detours only discourage the traveller. In a smooth, well-developed response, each paragraph develops a subtopic that is relevant and meaningfully linked with the main topic. Each paragraph is another leg of the journey and uses evidence or logical arguments to support the subtopic or topic of the text. On the level of a paragraph, each sentence should have a purpose and be meaningfully linked to the sentences before and after it. The steps along the path should not be too far apart. Very often during the review of some of my students’ essays, I noticed that I understood pieces of a sentence, however the whole sentence didn’t make sense to me. Sentences were often convoluted and long (sometimes the length of the entire paragraph) and it was not clear where the author wanted to take me with the long string of words. Every sentence can be divided into two parts. One of them is the “theme”, topic, or subject of the sentence. The theme contains familiar information for the listener or reader: Page 22 of 50

▪

I like cats.

▪

She was born is Scotland.

▪

Jimmy was bit on the forehead by a mosquito.

▪

Every sentence can be divided into two parts.

The other part, the “rheme”, contains new information for the sake of which the sentence has been written or said. Rheme is also defined as a focus or comment, or “the destination where the presentation moves after the departure point” (Bloglinguistics, 2013). It is something that is said about the topic: ▪

I like cats.

▪

She was born is Scotland.

▪

Jimmy was bit on the forehead by a mosquito.

▪

Every sentence can be divided into two parts.

When you construct a sentence, make sure that the theme and the rheme are properly marked (for example, through intonation or word order) for the purpose of the sentence to be clearly expressed. Remember that the words used to build the theme and rheme can be mixed around for emphasis or clarity. Note also that the theme may be omitted if it is commonly understood (such as the missing “you” in the previous sentence). When constructing your text, there are a number of common build blocks that can reliably be used. The first of these are simple facts. Then there are analogies and metaphors. These can be used to show how the ideas you wish to express are similar to (or different from) something in common experience. The point is to relate the meaning you wish to communicate to something your audience will easily understand. Logical arguments are also a valuable tool for building the support structure needed to hold up a conclusion. When two adjacent steps seem too far apart, a little bit of transition can smooth the path. Initial construction is the first half of the job. Once you have something to work with you can revise, strengthen, and sharpen your text. You should check your response for logic and clarity on multiple levels: on the level of words and phrases, sentences, paragraphs and the text as a whole. These levels are closely linked and overlap. Therefore, by reviewing one level, you will most likely solve problems on other levels as well. When you check the meaning of sentences for clarity, ask yourself what the purpose of each sentence is. Does the choice of words and grammar facilitate or impede the purpose? Does the sentence make sense? Is the meaning of the sentence complete? Check each paragraph in your text for clarity, logic and relevance. Does the choice of facts and information that you include into the paragraph help develop the subtopic of a paragraph and therefore the topic of the text as a whole? Also check each sentence within the paragraph for relevance. Finally, look at the entire text and ask such questions as: Does the text have a nice smooth flow and progression in the development of ideas? If you were the listener or the reader of this text, would you have to make assumptions because of the gaps in meaning?

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LANGUAGE AND STYLE Language means the language chosen by the author to tell the story. It is what makes a piece of writing distinctive. Style is the way language is used; it may be formal, colloquial, ornate, poetic, fast-paced, direct, down-to-earth. You need to carefully study your texts to consider how aspects of language: •

help to create the tone and style of the writing

•

produce an image with special meaning for a setting, character, idea or theme

•

have a symbolic meaning

Tone is the mood or 'sound' of the writing and conveys an attitude to the subject matter. The tone can be serious or comic, sarcastic or sincere, angry or affectionate (among many other possibilities) Be alert to how style and tone are closely related to the narrative point of view and other aspects of the narrative. For example: •

first-person: the style and tone of the narrative will reflect the personality, background and social context of the narrator.

•

third person: the tone of the narrative voice is usually more formal than the language used by the characters. This encourages us to see the narrator's viewpoint as reliable and truthful. The tone and style of a character's speech reflects their social class and educational background. The use of language allows the author to represent aspects of the society and culture to which the characters belong.

•

The use of non-English words conveys the cultural context of characters and highlights cultural differences.

Imagery sometimes called figurative language refers to language that writers use to help their readers understand and mentally see the subject they are writing about. •

The most common types of imagery include metaphors, similes, personification, symbols, analogies.

Symbols are images that stand for a larger idea or concept (e.g. the crown symbolises royalty; scales symbolise justice) •

Be on the look-out for recurring imagery in your texts for these have a special significance for the meaning of the text as a whole. The repetition of an image indicates that the author is doing more than simply describing a setting or character.

Characters •

The characters in all texts are the people around whom the plot is centred. They are fictional constructions of the author, and they drive the action of the story forward.

•

Characters often embark on personal journeys or quests which often lead to a personal, emotional, or spiritual awakening.

•

Often the protagonists are very changed by the end of the text and the main message of the author is embedded in the way the character is viewed in the end. Often this will depend upon the experiences, relationships, and reactions that the character has to the events that shape them.

•

The way a character is presented at the end of a story, whether they are triumphant or defeated, will depend upon what the author wants the reader to take away with them at the end of their experience of the narrative.

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Themes and Ideas •

Themes are the messages central to the purpose of any text and relate to the values of the author and their point of view. A text may (and often does) have several themes and explore ideas about subject matters (e.g. war, relationships, oppression, justice).

•

A theme about war for example, will not be about soldiers just fighting in World War I but may also explore ideas and issues that deal with relationships, conscience, reconstruction (aftermath of war), and so on.

•

It is important to remember that a character is constructed by an author to represent particular ideas, themes and values in the text.

Views and Values •

The views and values presented in a text are the attitudes, beliefs and ideas of the people and societies depicted. They refer both to the views and values of particular characters and to the views and values endorsed or critiqued by the text as a whole. The author's own views and values are also expressed through their work, just as readers bring underlying attitudes and beliefs to their interpretations of texts.

•

In other words, authors may portray positively or negatively a particular set of behaviours, a social convention, a political philosophy. For example, a text such as Charles Dickens' Hard Times may be said to present a damning picture of the ills of industrialised England.

Cultural, historical, social settings and contexts •

Every decision that an author makes about a story is done for a reason and this is especially important when considering the setting and context of a text.

Setting •

The context is which the text is set is very important.

•

The specific time period and historical setting of the story will shape the way you understand the concerns of the author.

•

Often you will be introduced to a text via a mini-history lesson in order to give you the background required to gain a broader understanding of the issues at hand.

Context •

Context refers to the surrounding circumstances in which a text is created. It refers to the influences on the author that shaped their views and values about themes and issues. These include social, political, religious, cultural, family, educational and economic influences, as well as people and life experiences. This, in turn, influences the text created.

•

Knowing the context of a text provides you with an insight into an author's views and values. It shows you how they see the world and the factors that influenced the construction of the text.

•

The context of a text provides you with a greater understanding of why characters are depicted in a certain way, why a particular setting was chosen and the specific themes an author wants to convey.

•

For example, in Hard Times Charles Dickens offers us an interpretation of the social structures and industrialisation of 19th Century England. He clearly attacks the merchant class who exploited the weak and vulnerable; he condemns the divorce laws of the time and the education system; he endorses the feminine ideal and punishes women who do not conform to the ideal.

Advice • You are advised to research the historical and cultural period of the text you are studying. Page 25 of 50

Develop the Meta language with which to Discuss Texts A. You are expected to be able to identify and actively use the appropriate metalanguage to discuss the texts. The most common are: •

author: authorial voice

•

point of view: first, second, third person, omniscient narrator

•

characters: protagonist, antagonist, secondary character

•

structure: exposition, turning points, climax, dénouement, resolution, flashback, stanza, acts, scenes

•

style: narrative, metaphor, simile, motif, imagery, symbolism, tone, mood, soliloquy, monologue, rhyming couplets, mise en scene, dissolve, close-up shot, low angle shot

Ensure you develop the appropriate terminology relevant to the type of text you are studying (e.g. novels, short stories, plays, films, poetry, autobiography, biography) and actively use them where appropriate, in your written responses. The best way to learn how to use them is through listening to class discussion, reading critical articles on the texts and recording appropriate words and phrases, and through writing practice. It is essential that you use appropriate language and vocabulary throughout your written and oral responses. Over the course of the year, you should aim to have developed a vocabulary list of words and phrases that best describe characters, themes, issues, the author's views and values, etc. •

words to describe a character may include morally corrupt, self-centred, arrogant

•

words to describe a theme may include oppressive, dystopian, bleak

Use effective verbs and adjectives that force you to discuss and comment and which prevent storytelling •

The author's irony is used to depict ...

•

The author's imagery of ... illustrates …

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The author uses ... to symbolise …

•

The author's narrative structure helps to position the way we perceive the values of A device favoured by author to express his view is ...

•

"The text validates its protagonist's violent rebellion through its depiction of a bloody and oppressive regime . . ."

•

"The author affirms the need for a balance between reason and emotion by showing the unhappy consequences of . . ."

•

"It is through the author's affectionate portraits of eccentric individuals that the novel undermines social pressure to . . ."

•

"The narrative critiques the notion that the society offers equal opportunity for all by showing how jobs and justice are far more readily obtained by the rich . . ."

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Use verbs to identify what the text / author, playwright, poet, fim director, is doing (e.g. explores, challenges, illustrates, etc.)

•

Text X explores the consequences when . . . through the patterns of imagery that . . .

•

The author evokes . . . our sympathy for character A by having him unjustly accused of . . .

•

The juxtaposition of images . . . suggest the impermanence of . . .

•

The conflict between character A and character B reflects the fundamental dichotomy between . . .

•

In this passage our first impressions of character C are challenged because C's private reflections on the issue illustrate .

•

The binary opposition between light and dark through the novel's patterns of imagery are moral concerns that are examined in . . .

•

Author shows how the conflict between culture and vulgarity provides is made clear from the opening of the play . . .

•

Author depicts the prostration of the cultured elite before the forces of darkness . . .

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Author illustrates this process through a careful manipulation of the setting . . .

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The link between . . . is crystallised in the image of . . . Page 26 of 50

Different Meanings from Different Readings Different readers and viewers can focus on specific readings of the text according to the ideas and values they perceive it presents. Many readers respond to texts from a "dominant reading" and while this is quite acceptable, others view texts from "alternative" and "resistant" readings. These include: Feminist, Marxist, Psychoanalytic, Post-colonial, Political, amongst others.

Dominant readings are interpretations of texts that are produced by a majority of readers in a particular culture at a particular time. They represent the assumptions and beliefs that are most dominant and powerful in the culture at the time. For example, Hard Times is about the evils caused by industrialisation.

Alternative readings are other interpretations of texts which may be different but are nevertheless acceptable in cultural terms. For example, readers could interpret Hard Times from a Marxist perspective.

Resistant readings are interpretations of texts which challenge the accepted views within society or oppose the dominant cultural beliefs. For example, the play The Importance of Being Earnest is "dominantly" read as a satire on Victorian society and morality and the appropriate ways for men and women to behave, a "Resistant Reading" would argue that the play is a satiric subversion of the rigidity of conventional Victorian attitudes to gender and sexuality. Or the homoerotic sub-text in the novel, A Passage to India. Readers and viewers can focus on specific readings of the text according to the ideas and values they perceive it presents. Here are just some examples of different readings:

A Marxist reading focuses on what the text says about class differences and issues to do with social justice. Some key characteristics are: •

adopts a conflict model of society, headed by the ruling class, which the literature usually supports.

•

class is the dominant structure.

•

class is the feature that denies or supports the achievement of potential, desires, wealth, love, etc.

•

privileges history as an essential element.

A gender or feminist reading focuses on the portrait of men and women contained in the text, identify stereotypes and highlights examples of inequality. Some key characteristics are: •

examines ideas of masculinity and femininity in texts, as well as what those concepts may mean at any given time and how they may influence and even direct how texts are both constructed and read

Most often seen in feminist readings: •

texts viewed from a female point of view and an awareness that females are often ascribed different roles, responsibilities and ways of acting from men.

•

focus on position of women in society and challenging the common assumptions.

•

concerned with oppression of women and power relationships that contribute to it.

A psychoanalytical reading focuses on the psychological aspects of a text, such as characters' motivations or the author's intentions. Some key characteristics are: •

broad reading that deals with the underlying psychology of the creator and/or the unconscious motivations of characters.

•

examines the ideas that underpin and support the social fabric and cultural and, or social identity on which is built a personal identity. Page 27 of 50

•

includes the narrower psychoanalytic readings that, while based on the same material, use, and interpret writers, characters, and texts in terms of specific symbols (e.g. Freudian, Jungian).

A post-colonial reading might focus on issues to do with the effects of colonisation, the exploitation of indigenous cultures by colonial powers and the movement towards independence and self-determination. Some key characteristics are: •

deals with or arises from the process of colonisation in previous centuries and national independence in (largely) the twentieth century.

•

relates to the literature that arose from colonisation, both supporting and challenging the effects of that process.

•

very often relates to issues of identity, suppressed, or supplanted by colonial rule.

PROCESS AND INDEX DATA FROM TEXTS AN INTRODUCTION TO CONTENT ANALYSIS Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyse the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.

Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theatre, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. Texts in a single study may also represent a variety of different types of occurrences, such as Palmquist's 1990 study of two composition classes, in which he analysed student and teacher interviews, writing journals, classroom discussions and lectures, and out-of-class interaction sheets. To conduct a content analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme—and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis.

Uses of Content Analysis Perhaps due to the fact that it can be applied to examine any piece of writing or occurrence of recorded communication, content analysis is currently used in a dizzying array of fields, ranging from marketing and media studies, to literature and rhetoric, ethnography and cultural studies, gender and age issues, sociology and political science, psychology and cognitive science, and many other fields of inquiry.

Additionally, content analysis reflects a close relationship with socio- and psycholinguistics and is playing an integral role in the development of artificial intelligence. The following list (adapted from Berelson, 1952) offers more possibilities for the uses of content analysis: •

Reveal international differences in communication content

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Detect the existence of propaganda

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Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution

•

Describe attitudinal and behavioural responses to communications

•

Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups Page 28 of 50

Types of Content Analysis In this guide, we discuss two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and frequency of concepts – most often represented by words of phrases – in a text. For instance, say you have a hunch that your favourite poet often writes about hunger. With conceptual analysis you can determine how many times words such as “hunger,” “hungry,” “famished,” or “starving” appear in a volume of poems. In contrast, relational analysis goes one step further by examining the relationships among concepts in a text. Returning to the “hunger” example, with relational analysis, you could identify what other words or phrases “hunger” or “famished” appear next to and then determine what different meanings emerge because of these groupings.

Conceptual Analysis Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of conceptual analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination, and the analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence. Also known as thematic analysis [although this term is somewhat problematic, given its varied definitions in current literature--see Palmquist, Carley, & Dale (1997) vis-a-vis Smith (1992)], the focus here is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms within a text or texts, although the terms may be implicit as well as explicit. While explicit terms obviously are easy to identify, coding for implicit terms and deciding their level of implication is complicated by the need to base judgments on a somewhat subjective system. To attempt to limit the subjectivity, then (as well as to limit problems of reliability and validity), coding such implicit terms usually involves the use of either a specialized dictionary or contextual translation rules. And sometimes, both tools are used--a trend reflected in recent versions of the Harvard and Lasswell dictionaries.

Steps for Conducting Conceptual Analysis The following discussion of steps that can be followed to code a text or set of texts during conceptual analysis use campaign speeches made by Bill Clinton during the 1992 presidential campaign as an example. To read about each step, click on the items in the list below: 1. Decide the level of analysis. 2. Decide how many concepts to code for. 3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept. 4. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts. 5. Develop rules for coding your texts. 6. Decide what to do with "irrelevant" information. 7. Code the texts. 8. Analyse your results.

Relational Analysis Relational analysis, like conceptual analysis, begins with the act of identifying concepts present in a given text or set of texts. However, relational analysis seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relationships between the concepts identified. Relational analysis has also been termed semantic analysis (Palmquist, Carley, & Dale, 1997). In other words, the focus of relational analysis is to look for semantic, or meaningful, relationships. Individual concepts, in and of themselves, are viewed as having no inherent meaning. Rather, meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts in a text. Carley (1992) asserts that concepts are "ideational kernels;" these kernels can be thought of as symbols which acquire meaning through their connections to other symbols. Page 29 of 50

Steps for relational analysis: 1. Identify Question. ... 2. Choose sample or subsample. ... 3. Determine type of analysis. ... 4. Reduce the text to categories to code for words or patterns. ... 5. Explore the relationship between concepts. ... 6. Code the relationships. ... 7. Perform statistical analyses. ... 8. Map out the representations.

UNDERSTANDS AND INTERPRETS HOW TEXT CONVENTIONS WORK TOGETHER TO CREATE MEANING AND EFFECT What do I need to know? Knowledge of texts and how they impact on readers and writers Readers and writers need to know that all texts have meaning and purpose, and they need to be able to distinguish between different text purposes. They need to know, for example, that some texts are intended primarily to raise reader or writer selfawareness, some to entertain, and some to communicate ideas or information. A major purpose of most texts is to affect the target audience in a particular way, often by conveying the writer’s point of view effectively. Students need to know that many texts have several purposes. Students should understand that all texts are intended for an audience (the audience is sometimes the writer) and that effective texts have an impact on their readers. They also need to know about the text features that writers use to achieve the desired impact. The deeper features of a text generally relate to the writer’s purpose and voice and include the structure and language features of the text. Its surface features include grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Young readers and writers will also learn that accurate or inaccurate use of surface features affects readers’ ability to make meaning of texts. Readers and writers need to know that there are different text forms and that these are generally characterised by a particular structure and certain other features. Forms such as stories, recounts, reports, procedures, arguments, explanations, varieties of poetry, and plays all have characteristic structures and features that are linked to their different purposes. Students need to know about the structures and features associated with each of these text forms.

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THE 4 MAIN WRITING STYLES: WHEN AND HOW YOU SHOULD USE THEM Having a clear understanding of the different types of writing techniques and the specific purpose each one serves is a critical component of communication skills in the workplace. One of the best ways to develop your writing skills is to learn how to choose the most effective technique to get your message across. In this article, we explain four different types of writing techniques with tips to help you apply them in your business writing. What is a writing technique? A writing technique is a style an author uses to convey their message in a manner that is effective and meaningful to their audience. Understanding the different types of writing techniques is important to professionals because you will need to change your style of writing to make a connection with your audience. For example, the writing method most effective for selling products to consumers is different from what’s most effective at providing employee feedback and coaching. Types of writing techniques There are four different types of writing techniques: 1. Descriptive writing style 2. Narrative writing style 3. Persuasive writing style 4. Expository writing style 1. Descriptive writing style Descriptive writing immerses the reader into a story by creating a vivid picture of characters, settings and events in their mind. Writers who use a descriptive writing style often use literary tools like similes and metaphors in their writing. The purpose of the descriptive writing style is to make the reader feel like they are experiencing the events for themselves. Most descriptive writing isn’t very long. Examples include poems, personal journals and lyrics. You can use descriptive writing in the workplace when you want to bring a story to life, such as a brief biography or autobiography written to introduce a new employee to the company. 2. Narrative writing style Narrative writing expands upon the descriptive writing style and tells an entire story with a beginning, middle and end. Narrative writing style follows a clear storyline and plot, such as a fictional novel, screenplay or memoir. Writers who use a narrative writing style often use literary tools like foreshadowing and flashbacks in their writing. Narrative writing could be used in the workplace for a salesperson using a personal anecdote to prepare the reader for their sales pitch. 3. Persuasive writing style Persuasive writing is used to convince or influence the reader to believe or do what the writer wants them to do. The persuasive writing style requires the writer to combine research and logical reasoning with an emotional connection that persuades the reader to adopt the writer’s personal opinions and beliefs. Examples of persuasive writing in the workplace include cover letters, letters of recommendation, company brochures, business proposals and advertisements intended to convince consumers to buy your product. Page 31 of 50

4. Expository writing style Expository writing is used to inform, explain or describe something to the reader. The expository writing style is one of the most common types of writing and answers questions the reader has, such as what, why and how. When using an expository writing style, the writer needs to separate their opinion from the facts they are sharing. Examples of expository writing in the workplace include employee newsletters, how-to guides and educational articles that are intended to provide information, insights and facts about a specific subject.

TIPS FOR USING WRITING TECHNIQUES IN BUSINESS WRITING Here are a few additional tips for using these writing techniques to improve your business writing: •

Determine what your message is: Knowing the message you are trying to convey to the reader and the purpose of your writing will help you choose the writing technique that will be most effective for your piece.

•

Know your audience: You will also need to consider who your audience is and which writing technique they will respond the most effectively to.

•

Try combining writing styles: Many pieces of writing combine two or more writing techniques to convey a message effectively. For example, salespeople often use a combination of narrative storytelling and persuasive arguments to pitch and sell their products.

•

Use appropriate literary devices: Literary devices—like similes, metaphors, alliteration, personification, foreshadowing and flashbacks—are powerful tools writers can use to improve their writing. Expand your knowledge about different types of literary devices and know which ones work best with each writing technique.

r resource: textual features GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE STRUCTURES The textual features relevant to the first objective of Dimension 2 are described below. These are features that teachers may like to draw on to further build students’ fluency and accuracy of expression in their writing and speech. Textual feature Ambiguity

Analogy

Explanation Confusing meaning or meaning that is open to more than one interpretation. Ambiguity can be caused by: • faulty expression needing reworking for clarity • inclusive language which creates vagueness, e.g. Some guy over there, they said. At times, ambiguity is used to deliberately create double meaning. It can take two forms: • double meaning arising from language that lends itself to more than one interpretation • a word or expression capable of two interpretations, with one usually risqué (double entendre). Agreement, likeness or correspondence between the relations of things to one another; a partial similarity in particular circumstances on which a comparison may be based. Example: Memory is to love what the saucer is to the cup. (Elizabeth Bowen, The House in Paris, 1935, reprinted Anchor, New York, 2002) An analogy can be compact in description or extended over a few sentences or paragraphs. Page 32 of 50

Analogies can be used to create arguments and clarify issues. Antecedent

A word that is grammatically related to the pronoun it follows, in clauses starting with who, that, which.

Antithesis

A case of argument that is the direct opposite of an established way of thinking. Its purpose in setting up a contrast or opposition can be beneficial or harmful. Antithesis can be used in preparing and presenting arguments. Its use should not create offensiveness or threat.

Back shifting

The process used when changing verb tense from present to past as direct or quoted speech is changed to reported speech. Example: “I do not want to go to the shop!” he shouted. This becomes: He shouted that he did not want to go to the shop.

Bias

Disposition towards or prejudice against something, someone or some idea. Bias in texts — e.g. gender, ideology, predisposition — can be used to build further understanding of the effects of inference and implication.

Clause (see phrase and sentence below) (See paragraph under Cohesive devices)

Types of clauses depending on a school’s approach to grammar and sentence construction: • adjectival • adverbial • cleft • dependent • embedded • independent • participial • relative • rheme • theme. Information about clause types can be accessed through the sequence of learning devised for Foundation to Year 10 English Australian Curriculum. See www.australiancurriculum.edu.au Professional development provided by school systems is also useful.

Colloquialism

Colloquialism is informal, everyday expression and regarded as informal language use. Example: Take a break, over the moon.

Comparative/ superlative

Terms for the language structures that carry degrees of comparison when applied to adjectives and adverbs, involving the correct use of “more” and “most” when placed with adjectives or adverbs, and knowing those adjectives that cannot have the suffixes -er and -est added to them.

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Connotation

Further implied meaning of a word beyond the literal meaning; it is a commonly understood, subjective, emotional and/or cultural association that some word or phrase carries, in addition to the word or phrase’s explicit or literal meaning. A connotation can be positive or negative with regards to its pleasing or displeasing emotional connection. Example: A stubborn person may be described as strong-willed or pigheaded. Strong-willed connotes admiration for the level of someone’s will (positive), while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with someone (negative).

Diction

Style of speaking or writing dependent upon choice of words that are appropriate to an audience. Example: A man might refer to his car as his wheels in conversation with a friend, but if he were writing an article for the RACQ he would write: “People base their decision to buy a vehicle on the following considerations…” It would not be appropriate to use “wheels” in the latter context.

Double negative

The use of two words indicating the negative situation in one sentence which curiously conveys positive meaning. Example: I didn’t not do it; It’s never not the situation. In everyday speech and writing, the use of the double negative works against the clarity of language. Example: I never saw nothing. Implied meaning: I never saw anything. Actual meaning: I saw something. The process of reducing clauses to phrases and even words so that the text becomes more lexically dense. Example: His race to the finish line ended because he was tired and as a consequence his hamstrings seemed to seize up. (21 words) He finished the race tired and with hamstring problems. (9 words) This is useful to improve and edit writing.

Downgrading

Downranking

The process of nesting or embedding clauses inside each other so that there is a ranking order as dependent clauses depend upon other dependent clauses. Example: The children went to the beach that was at the end of the street where their grandparents had lived as long as they could remember. In the example, each clause is ranked under the one above it, and all nested into the one long relative clause that has beach as its initial antecedent. This is useful to improve and edit writing.

Elaboration

Adding details in writing or speaking to give additional or fuller treatment to an argument or subject of discussion.

Emphasis

Indicating the importance of certain/key ideas by stressing them in quantity of mention and intensity of wording in arguments and descriptions.

Euphemism

The substitution of more pleasant and agreeable words for more disagreeable or harsh ones. Example: passed on for dead, troubled adolescent for unruly teenager. Euphemistic language can be used to alter the tone of a text, as a tool for persuasion, or for increasing the dignity of the language. Representing an idea, issue, case or person disproportionately to its significance or contribution; magnifying beyond the limits of truth. Exaggeration can be used in preparing and presenting arguments. Its use

Exaggeration

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should not create libel, slander or falsehood. Expletive

Statement of personal expression and state of mind used in spoken language.

Extraposition

Using an external or outside “it” or “there” to make a statement. Example: It was not possible for them to get away that morning, or there was no possibility that they could get away that morning instead of they could not get away that morning. This strategy can be used to create further choice in sentence types and to develop greater control of language when positioning a reader.

Idiom

A form of expression peculiar to a language, such that the expression has a significance other than its literal one. It is an expression whose meaning is not literally carried in the words. Example: neither here nor there, the outback, beyond the black stump.

Juxtaposition

Words, phrases or clauses placed next to each other to add more information to the principal thing being described, leaving it up to the reader to establish connections and impose meaning. It also serves to contrast two things in order to show unlikeness or difference, or to note the opposite qualities of the two. In literature it occurs when two images that are otherwise not commonly brought together are placed structurally close so that meaning can be considered through the contrasting ideas, images and motifs. Example: Haiku poetry, irony, Modernist poetry, pastiche. Juxtaposition can be used to create descriptions or arguments to better effect.

Morphology

In linguistics this is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of morphemes (affixes, stems, roots) and other units of meaning in a language, like parts of speech and intonation (stress) and implied context.

Overstatement (see exaggeration above)

Stating or representing an idea more strongly than is desirable or necessary. stating with too much emphasis.

Parts of speech

Parts of speech depending on a school’s approach to grammar and sentence construction: • adjective • adverb • conjunction • determiner • gerund • noun • participle • preposition • pronoun • verb. Information about parts of speech can be accessed through the sequence of learning devised for Foundation to Year 10 English Australian Curriculum. See www.australiancurriculum.edu.au Professional development provided by school systems is also useful.

Phrase (see clause above and sentence below)

Types of phrases depending on a school’s approach to grammar and sentence construction: • adjectival Page 35 of 50

• adverbial • noun • participial • prepositional. Information about phrase types can be accessed through the sequence of learning devised for Foundation to Year 10 English Australian Curriculum. Professional development provided by school systems is also useful. Pleonasm

The use of more words than necessary to express an idea; superfluous wording. Example: equally as well, more preferable, tiny little child. The use of words to emphasise what is clear without them Example: Ears pierced while you wait.

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used.

Redundancy (see repetition below)

The presence of more words than are needed to convey meaning. Example: The use of extra words that are not needed because they are superfluous to requirements. This should not be confused with deliberate repetition used by communicators who use subtle and repeated forms of wording to get their message across to a large audience.

Repetition (see redundancy above)

Continual restatement of the same ideas even though the words used are different. Repetition can be used to prepare and present arguments. When used as a rhetorical device for effect, repetition may enhance speech or writing.

Sentence (see clause above) (See paragraph under Cohesive devices)

Semantics Speech acts

Types of sentences depending on a school’s approach to grammar and sentence construction: • complex • compound • fragments • length • patterning • periodic • question • run-on • simple • verb less. The branch of linguistics which has to do with the study and description of meaning. A term covering statements, questions, commands, requests, promises, offers and other acts of this kind that a speaker performs in uttering a sentence.

Syntax

This is the study of the rules governing sentence structure and the way words work together to form meaning. This is essentially what Dimension 2 is building on and developing further.

Tautology (see redundancy above)

Literally the same wording or expression used in proximity. Example: perfectly unique; partnership; surrounding environment. It is also the needless repetition of an idea across several sentences. Page 36 of 50

Understatement

Stating or representing an idea less strongly than is desirable or necessary. stating with too little emphasis.

Voice — active

The active voice is direct and leads to greater clarity of meaning. The focus of the clause/sentence is on “the doer”. Example: The girl (doer) drove the car.

Voice — passive

The passive voice is indirect and used to distance the reader from the action. The focus of the clause/sentence is on “the done to”. Example: The car (done to) was driven by the girl. In literary terms, voice is the author’s style, the quality that makes his or her writing unique, and which conveys the author’s attitude, personality and character.

Voice

DIFFERENT TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS There are many different types of visual aids. The following advice will help you make the most of those most commonly used. PowerPoint (or equivalent) Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of visual aid. Used well, it can really help you in your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the opposite effect. The general principles are: Do

Don't

use a big enough font (minimum 20pt)

make it so small you can't read it

keep the background simple

use a fussy background image

use animations when appropriate

but don't over-do the animation - it gets distracting

make things visual

use endless slides of bulleted lists that all look the same

Overhead projector slides/transparencies Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on the overhead projector (OHP) - a very useful tool found in most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects and enlarges your slides onto a screen or wall without requiring the lights to be dimmed. You can produce your slides in three ways: •

pre-prepared slides: these can be words or images either hand written/drawn or produced on a computer;

•

spontaneously produced slides: these can be written as you speak to illustrate your points or to record comments from the audience.

•

a mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides when making your presentation to show movement, highlight change or signal detailed interrelationships.

Make sure that the text on your slides is large enough to be read from the back of the room. A useful rule of thumb is to use 18-point text if you are producing slides with text on a computer. This should also help reduce the amount of information on each slide. Avoid giving your audience too much text or overly complicated diagrams to read as this limits their ability to listen. Try to avoid lists of abstract words as these can be misleading or uninformative. Page 37 of 50

White or black board White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or routines, particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your key points as you introduce your presentation (this will give you a fixed list to help you recap as you go along). Rather than expecting the audience to follow your spoken description of an experiment or process, write each stage on the board, including any complex terminology or precise references to help your audience take accurate notes. However, once you have written something on the board you will either have to leave it there or rub it off both can be distracting to your audience. Check to make sure your audience has taken down a reference before rubbing it off - there is nothing more frustrating than not being given enough time! Avoid leaving out of date material from an earlier point of your presentation on the board as this might confuse your audience. If you do need to write 'live', check that your audience can read your writing. Paper handouts Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your information is too detailed to fit on a slide or if you want your audience to have a full record of your findings. Consider the merits of passing round your handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a presentation. Given too early and they may prove a distraction. Given too late and your audience may have taken too many unnecessary notes. Given out in the middle and your audience will inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of avoiding these pitfalls is to give out incomplete handouts at key stages during your presentation. You can then highlight the missing details vocally, encouraging your audience to fill in the gaps. Flip chart A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very useful and flexible way of recording information during your presentation - you can even use pre-prepared sheets for key points. Record information as you go along, keeping one main idea to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to help you recap your main points. Use the turning of a page to show progression from point to point. Remember to make your writing clear and readable and your diagrams as simple as possible. Video (DVD or VHS) Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to bring movement, pictures and sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is directly relevant to your content. Tell your audience what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than you need. Artefacts or props Sometimes it can be very useful to use artefacts or props when making a presentation (think of the safety routine on an aeroplane when the steward shows you how to use the safety equipment). If you bring an artefact with you, make sure that the object can be seen and be prepared to pass it round a small group or move to different areas of a large room to help your audience view it in detail. Remember that this will take time and that when an audience is immersed in looking at an object, they will find it hard to listen to your talk. Conceal large props until you need them; they might distract your audience's attention.

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VISUAL AIDS Almost all presentations can be enhanced by the effective use of visual aids. These can include handouts, overhead transparencies, drawings on the whiteboard, PowerPoint slides, and many other types of props. Visual aids are an important nonverbal aspect of your speech that you can control. Once you have chosen a topic, you need to consider how you are going to show your audience what you are talking about. Have you ever asked for driving directions and not understood someone’s response? Did the person say, “Turn right at Sam’s Grocery Store, the new one” or “I think you will turn at the second light, but it might be the third one”? Chances are that unless you know the town well or have a map handy, the visual cue of a grocery store or a traffic light might be insufficient to let you know where to turn. Your audience experiences the same frustration, or sense of accomplishment, when they get lost or find their way during your speech. Consider how you can express yourself visually, providing common references, illustrations, and images that lead the audience to understand your point or issue. Visual aids accomplish several goals: •

Make your speech more interesting

•

Enhance your credibility as a speaker

•

Serve as guides to transitions, helping the audience stay on track

•

Communicate complex or intriguing information in a short period of time

•

Reinforce your verbal message

•

Help the audience use and retain the information

PURPOSE, EMPHASIS, SUPPORT, AND CLARITY When you look at your own presentation from an audience member’s perspective, you might consider how to distinguish the main points from the rest of the information. You might also consider the relationships being presented between ideas or concepts, or how other aspects of the presentation can complement the oral message. Your audience naturally will want to know why you are presenting the visual aid. The purpose for each visual aid should be clear, and almost speak for itself. If you can’t quickly grasp the purpose of a visual aid in a speech, you have to honestly consider whether it should be used in the first place. Visual aids can significantly develop the message of a speech, but they must be used for a specific purpose the audience can easily recognize. Perhaps you want to highlight a trend between two related issues, such as socioeconomic status and educational attainment. A line graph might show effectively how, as socioeconomic status rises, educational attainment also rises. This use of a visual aid can provide emphasis, effectively highlighting key words, ideas, or relationships for the audience. Visual aids can also provide necessary support for your position. Audience members may question your assertion of the relationship between socioeconomic status and educational attainment. To support your argument, you might include on the slide, “According to the U.S. Department of Education Study no. 12345,” or even use an image of the Department of Education Web page projected on a large screen. You might consider showing similar studies in graphic form, illustrating similarities across a wide range of research. Page 39 of 50

Clarity is key in the use of visual aids. One way to improve clarity is to limit the number of words on a PowerPoint slide. No more than ten words per slide, with a font large enough to be read at the back of the room or auditorium, is a good rule of thumb. Key images that have a clear relationship to the verbal message can also improve clarity. You may also choose to illustrate the same data successively in two distinct formats, perhaps a line graph followed by two pie graphs. Your central goal is to ensure your visual aid is clear.

METHODS AND MATERIALS If you have been asked to give a presentation on a new product idea that a team within your organization is considering, how might you approach the challenge? You may consider a chronological organization pattern, starting with background, current market, and a trend analysis of what is to come—fair enough, but how will you make it vivid for your audience? How to represent information visually is a significant challenge, and you have several options. You may choose to use a chart or diagram to show a timeline of events to date, from the first meeting about the proposed product to the results from the latest focus group. This timeline may work for you, but let’s say you would like to get into the actual decision-making process that motivated your team to design the product with specific features in the first place. You may decide to use decision trees (or tree diagrams) showing the variables and products in place at the beginning of your discussions, and how each decision led to the next, bringing you to the decision-making point where you are today. To complement this comprehensive guide and help make a transition to current content areas of questions, you may use a bar or pie graph to show the percentage of competing products in the market. If you have access to the Internet and a projector, you may use a topographical map showing a three-dimensional rendering of the local areas most likely to find your product attractive. If actual hills and valleys have nothing to do with your project, you can still represent the data you have collected in three dimensions. Then you may show a comparable graph illustrating the distribution of products and their relative degree of market penetration.

Bar and pie graphs can clearly demonstrate results. Christopher Porter – EuroTrip2006 – Total Expenses – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Finally, you may move to the issue of results, and present the audience with a model of your product and one from a competitor, asking which they prefer. The object may be just the visual aid you need to make your point and reinforce the

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residual message. When we can see, feel, touch, or be in close proximity to an object it often has a greater impact. In a world of digital images and special effects, objects presented in real time can still make a positive effect on the audience. Additional visual aids you may choose include—but are not limited to—sound and music, video, and even yourself. If your speech is about how to use the product, your demonstration may just be the best visual aid. You will want to give some thought to how to portray your chart, graph, or object when it’s time to use your visual aids. The chalk or white board is common way of presenting visual aids, but it can get messy. Your instructor may write key words or diagrams on the boards while discussing a textbook chapter, but can you read his or her writing? The same lesson holds true for you. If you are going to use a white board and have a series of words on it, write them out clearly before you start your presentation. Flip charts on a pedestal can also show a series of steps or break a chart down into its basic components. A poster board is another common way of organizing your visual aids before a speech, but given its often one-time use, it is losing out to the computer screen. It is, however, portable and allows you a large “blank page” with which to express your ideas. Handouts may also serve to communicate complex or detailed information to the audience but be careful never to break handout rule number one: never give handouts to the audience at the beginning of your speech. Where do you want the audience to look—at you or at the handout? Many novice speakers might be tempted to say the handout, but you will no doubt recognize how that diverts and divides the audience’s attention. People will listen to the words from the handout in their minds and tune you out. They will read at their own pace and have questions. They may even be impolite enough to use them as fans or paper airplanes. Handouts can be your worst enemy. If you need to use one, state at the beginning of the speech that you will be providing one at the conclusion of your presentation. This will alleviate the audience’s worry about capturing all your content by taking notes, and keep their attention focused on you while you speak. Transparencies and slides have been replaced by computer-generated slide show programs like PowerPoint by Microsoft, which we will discuss in greater detail later in this section. These programs can be very helpful in presenting visual information, but because computers and projectors sometimes break down and fail to work as planned, you need a plan B. You may need a poster board, or to write on the whiteboard or to have a handout in reserve, but a Plan B is always a good idea when it comes to presentations that integrate technology. You may arrive at your destination and find the equipment is no longer available, is incompatible with your media storage device, or is simply not working, but the show must go on. Video clips, such as those you might find on YouTube, can also be effective visual aids. However, as with handouts, there is one concern: You don’t want the audience to want to watch the video more than they want to tune into your presentation. How do you prevent this? Keep the clip short and make sure it reinforces the central message of your presentation. Always stop speaking before the audience stops listening, and the same holds true for the mesmerizing force of moving images on a screen. People are naturally attracted to them and will get “sucked into” your video example rather quickly. Be a good editor, introduce the clip and state what will happen out loud, point out a key aspect of it to the audience while it plays (overlap), and then make a clear transitional statement as you turn it off. Transitions are often the hardest part of any speech as the audience can get off track, and video clips are one of the most challenging visual aids you can choose because of their power to attract attention. Use that power wisely.

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PREPARING VISUAL AIDS Get started early so that you have time to create or research visual aids that will truly support your presentation, not just provide “fluff.” Make sure you use a font or image large enough to be legible for those in the back of the room, and that you actually test your visual aids before the day of your presentation. Ask a friend to stand at the back of the room and read or interpret your visual aid. If you are using computer-generated slides, try them out in a practice setting, not just on your computer screen. The slides will look different when projected. Allow time for revision based on what you learn. Your visual aids should meet the following criteria: •

Big. They should be legible for everyone and should be “back row certified.”

•

Clear. Your audience should “get it” the first time they see it.

•

Simple. They should serve to simplify the concepts they illustrate.

•

Consistent. They should reinforce continuity by using the same visual style.

USING VISUAL AIDS Here are three general guidelines to follow when using visual aids (McLean, S., 2003). Here are some dos and don’ts: 1. Do make a clear connection between your words and the visual aid for the audience. 2. Do not distract the audience with your visual aid, blocking their view of you or adjusting the visual aid repeatedly while trying to speak. 3. Do speak to your audience—not to the whiteboard, the video, or other visual aids. The timing of your presentation, and of your visual aids, can also have good or bad consequences. According to a popular joke, a good way to get your boss to approve just about anything is to schedule a meeting after lunch, turn the lights down, and present some boring PowerPoint slides. While the idea of a drowsy boss signing off on a hare-brained project is amusing, in reality you will want to use visual aids not as a sleeping potion but as a strategy to keep your presentation lively and interesting. Becoming proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice, and the more you practice before your speech, the more comfortable you will be with your visual aids and the role they serve in illustrating your points. Planning ahead before speaking will help, but when it comes time to actually give your speech, make sure they work for the audience as they should. Speaking to a visual aid (or reading it with your back to the audience) is not an effective strategy. You should know your material well enough that you refer to a visual aid, not rely on it.

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USING POWERPOINT AS A VISUAL AID PowerPoint and similar visual representation programs can be an effective tool to help audiences remember your message, but they can also be an annoying distraction to your speech. How you prepare your slides and use the tool will determine your effectiveness. PowerPoint is a slideware program that you have no doubt seen used in class, presentation at work, or perhaps used yourself to support a presentation. PowerPoint and similar slideware programs provide templates for creating electronic slides to present visual information to the audience, reinforcing the verbal message. You’ll be able to import, or cut and paste, words from text files, images, or video clips to create slides to represent your ideas. You can even incorporate Web links. When using any software program, it’s always a good idea to experiment with it long before you intend to use it, explore its many options and functions, and see how it can be an effective tool for you. Video Clip At first, you might be overwhelmed by the possibilities, and you might be tempted to use all the bells, whistles, and sound effects, not to mention the tumbling, flying, and animated graphics. If used wisely, a dissolve or key transition can be like a well-executed scene from a major motion picture film and lead your audience to the next point. But if used indiscriminately, it can annoy the audience to the point where they cringe in anticipation of the sound effect at the start of each slide. This danger is inherent in the tool, but you are in charge of it and can make wise choices that enhance the understanding and retention of your information. The first point to consider is what is the most important visual aid? The answer is you, the speaker. You will facilitate the discussion, give life to the information, and help the audience correlate the content to your goal or purpose. You don’t want to be in a position where the PowerPoint presentation is the main focus and you are on the side of the stage, simply helping the audience follow along. It should support you in your presentation, rather than the other way around. Just as there is a number one rule for handouts, there is also one for PowerPoints: do not use PowerPoints as a read-aloud script for your speech. The PowerPoints should amplify and illustrate your main points, not reproduce everything you are going to say. Your pictures are the second area of emphasis you’ll want to consider. The tool will allow you to show graphs, charts and illustrate relationships that words may only approach in terms of communication, but your verbal support of the visual images will make all the difference. Dense pictures or complicated graphics will confuse more than clarify. Choose clear images that have an immediate connection to both your content and the audience, tailored to their specific needs. After images, consider only key words that can be easily read to accompany your pictures. The fewer words the better: try to keep each slide to a total word count of less than ten words. Do not use full sentences. Using key words provides support for your verbal discussion, guiding you as well as your audience. The key words can serve as signposts or signal words related to key ideas. A natural question at this point is, “How do I communicate complex information simply?” The answer comes with several options. The visual representation on the screen is for support and illustration. Should you need to communicate more technical, complex, or in-depth information in a visual way, consider preparing a handout to distribute at the conclusion of your speech. You may also consider using a printout of your slide show with a “notes” section, but if you distribute it at the beginning of your speech, you run the risk of turning your presentation into a guided reading exercise and possibly distracting or losing members of the audience. Everyone reads at a different pace and takes notes in their own way. You don’t want to be in the position of going back and forth between slides to help people follow along. Page 43 of 50

Another point to consider is how you want to use the tool to support your speech and how your audience will interpret its presentation. Most audiences wouldn’t want to read a page of text—as you might see in this book—on the big screen. They’ll be far more likely to glance at the screen and assess the information you present in relation to your discussion. Therefore, it is key to consider one main idea, relationship, or point per slide. The use of the tool should be guided with the idea that its presentation is for the audience’s benefit, not yours. People often understand pictures and images more quickly and easily than text, and you can use this to your advantage, using the knowledge that a picture is worth a thousand words.

USE OF COLOUR People love colour, and understandably your audience will appreciate the visual stimulation of a colourful presentation. If you have ever seen a car painted a custom colour that just didn’t attract you, or seen colours put together in ways that made you wonder what people were thinking when they did that, you will recognize that colour can also distract and turn off an audience. Colour is a powerful way to present information, and the power should be used wisely. You will be selecting which colour you want to use for headers or key words, and how they relate the colours in the visual images. Together, your images, key words, and the use of colour in fonts, backgrounds, table, and graphs can have a significant impact on your audience. You will need to give some thought and consideration to what type of impact you want to make, how it will contribute or possibly distract, and what will work well for you to produce an effective and impressive presentation. There are inherent relationships between colours, and while you may have covered some of this information in art classes you have taken, it is valuable to review here. According to the standard colour wheel, colours are grouped into primary, secondary, and tertiary categories. Primary colours are the colours from which other colours are made through various combinations. Secondary colours represent a combination of two primary colours, while tertiary colours are made from combinations of primary and secondary colours.

Colour Wheel

Michael Hernandez – colour wheel – CC BY 2.0.

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Primary colours. Red, blue and yellow

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Secondary colours. Green, violet, and orange

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Tertiary colours. Red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue-green, yellow-orange, and yellow green

Colours have relationships depending on their location on the wheel. Colours that are opposite each other are called complementary and they contrast, creating a dynamic effect. Analogous colours are located next to each other and promote harmony, continuity, and sense of unity. Your audience comes first: when considering your choice of colours to use, legibility must be your priority. Contrast can help the audience read your key terms more easily. Also, focus on the background colour and its relation to the images you plan to incorporate to insure they complement each other. Consider repetition of colour, from your graphics to your text, to help unify each slide. To reduce visual noise, try not to use more than two or three additional colours. Use colours sparingly to make a better impact and consider the use of texture and reverse colour fonts (the same as a background or white) as an option. Be aware that many people are blue green colour-blind, and that red-green colour-blindness is also fairly common. With this in mind, choose colours that most audience members will be able to differentiate. If you are using a pie chart, for example, avoid putting a blue segment next to a green one. Use labelling so that even if someone is totally colour-blind they will be able to tell the relative sizes of the pie segments and what they signify. Colour is also a matter of culture. Some colours may be perceived as formal or informal, or masculine or feminine. Recognize that red is usually associated with danger, while green signals “go.” Make sure the colour associated with the word is reflected in your choice. If you have a key word about nature, but the colour is metallic, the contrast may not contribute to the rhetorical situation and confuse the audience. Seeking a balance between professionalism and attractiveness may seem to be a challenge, but experiment and test your drafts with friends to see what works for you. Also consider examining other examples, commonly available on the Internet, but retain the viewpoint that not everything online is effective nor should it be imitated. There are predetermined colour schemes already incorporated into PowerPoint that you can rely on for your presentation. We’ve given consideration to colour in relation to fonts and the representation of key words, but we also need to consider font size and selection. PowerPoint will have default settings for headlines and text, but you will need to consider what is most appropriate for your rhetorical situation. Always think about the person sitting in the back of the room. The title size should be at least forty points, and the body text (used sparingly) should be at least thirty-two points. In Designing Visual Language: Strategies for Professional Communicators (Kostelnick, C., and Roberts, D., 1998), Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts provide a valuable discussion of fonts, font styles, and what to choose to make an impact depending on your rhetorical situation. One good principle they highlight is that sans serif fonts such as Arial work better than serif fonts like Times New Roman for images projected onto a screen. The thin lines and extra aspects to serif the font may not portray themselves well on a large screen or contribute to clarity. To you this may mean that you choose Arial or a similar font to enhance clarity and ease of reading. Kostelnick and Roberts also discuss the use of grouping strategies to improve the communication of information (Kostelnick, C., and Roberts, D., 1998). Bullets, the use of space, similarity, and proximity all pertain to the process of perception, which differs from one person to another.

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HELPFUL HINTS FOR VISUAL AIDS As we’ve discussed, visual aids can be a powerful tool when used effectively but can also run the risk of dominating your presentation. As a speaker, you will need to consider your audience and how the portrayal of images, text, graphic, animated sequences, or sound files will contribute or detract from your presentation. Here is a brief list of hints to keep in mind as you prepare your presentation. •

Keep visual aids simple.

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Use one key idea per slide.

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Avoid clutter, noise, and overwhelming slides.

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Use large, bold fonts that the audience can read from at least twenty feet from the screen.

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Use contrasting colours to create a dynamic effect.

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Use analogous colours to unify your presentation.

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Use clip art with permission and sparingly.

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Edit and proofread each slide with care and caution.

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Use copies of your visuals available as handouts after your presentation.

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Check the presentation room beforehand.

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With a PowerPoint presentation, or any presentation involving technology, have a backup plan, such as your visuals printed on transparencies, should unexpected equipment or interface compatibility problems arise

Becoming proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice. The more you practice before your speech, the more comfortable you will be with your visual aids and the role they serve in illustrating your message. Giving thought to where to place visual aids before speaking helps, but when the time comes to actually give your speech, make sure you reassess your plans and ensure that they work for the audience as they should. Speaking to a visual aid (or reading it to the audience) is not an effective strategy. Know your material well enough that you refer to your visual aids, not rely on them.

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REFERENCES •

Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing visual language: Strategies for professional communicators. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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https://writing.colostate.edu/references/research/content/com3b1.cfm

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http://www.englishtestpreplab.com/text-construction-and-meaningexpression/#:~:text=We%20combine%20words%20into%20phrases,paragraphs%20and%20paragraphs%20into%20 text.&text=The%20goal%20of%20a%20listener,understand%20or%20misunderstand%20your%20intention. http://txccrn.uh.edu/standards/social-studies/iv-Analysis-Synthesis-and-Evaluation-of-Information%20/index.php www.australiancurriculum.edu.au

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GLOSSARY Audience: The intended reader, listeners, or viewers of a particular text - in planning a piece of writing learners (speakers/writers) must take into consideration the purpose and audience in choosing an appropriate form of writing. Audience also refers to internal audiences, e.g. within the organisation and external audiences, e.g. partnerships - locally and internationally. Coherence: The underlying logical relationship, which links ideas together. Coherence is to do with ideas and meanings. A paragraph is coherent if all its sentences are connected logically so that they are easy to follow. An essay is coherent if its paragraphs are logically connected and the ideas have a unity, forming a logical whole. Cohesion: Linking ideas by means of language ( e.g. the grammar or syntax of a sentence or paragraph) - using logical connectors or linking words such as conjunctions, pronouns to hold a paragraph together and give it a linguistic unity. Consensus: An opinion or position reached by a group as a whole; general agreement or accord. Context: • That which precedes or follows a word or text and is essential to its meaning; • The broader literal, social or cultural environment to which a text (or part of a text) is related and which affects its readers' understanding. Conventions: Accepted practices or rules in the use of language. Some conventions help convey meaning (e.g. the rules of grammar of a language, punctuation typefaces, capital letters); others assist in the presentation of content (e.g. table of contents, headings, footnotes, charts, captions, lists, pictures, index). Creative thinking: The process of thinking about ideas or situations in inventive and unusual ways in order to understand them better and respond to them in a new and constructive manner. Learners think creatively in all subject areas when they imagine, invent, alter, or improve a concept or product. Critical thinking: The process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to understand them fully, identify their implications, and/or make a judgement about what is sensible or reasonable to believe or do. Editing: Page 47 of 50

The process of correcting grammatical, usage, punctuation, and spelling errors to ensure that the writing is clear and correct. The editing process also includes checking writing for coherence of ideas and cohesion of structure. In media, editing involves the selection and juxtaposition of sounds and images. Fluency: The word comes from the flow of a river and suggests a coherence and cohesion that gives language use the quality of being natural easy to use and easy to interpret. Forms of writing: Any particular type of text, having specific and distinctive characteristics arising from its purpose, function, and audience. • Written forms include narratives (folklore/short stories/novels/dramas), dialogues, sets of instructions, advertisements, editorials, brochures, manuals, agendas and minutes, diary entries, journals, lists, charts, plays, reports, journals, essays, poems and letters • Oral forms include conversations, debates, seminars, panel discussions, interviews, role play, monologues, prayers, lectures, negotiations, and speeches • Visual genres include photographs, documentaries, travelogues, feature films, soap operas, and cartoons. These can be analysed into more specific genres, for example, feature films could be grouped as westerns, thrillers, dramas, romances, musicals and comedies Grammar: A description of the structure of a language, particularly the way words and phrases are formed and combined to produce sentences. It takes into account the meanings, functions and organisation of these sentences in the system of the language. Graphics: A visual representation such as a chart, table, timeline, flowchart, or diagram used to record, analyse, synthesise, and assess information and ideas. Implicit meaning: Ideas and concepts that are present but stated indirectly. Index: Something that serves to guide, point out or otherwise facilitate reference such as a table, file or catalogue. Inference: A conclusion drawn from evidence. Information processing: A general term for the process by which information is identified, understood, stored, organised, retrieved, combined and communicated to form new knowledge. Jargon: Speech or writing used by a group of people who belong to a particular trade, profession, or any other group bound together by mutual interest, e.g. the jargon of law, medical jargon. Jargon is useful when used within a trade or profession, but when it is used to exclude listeners/readers from an interaction, it is potentially hurtful or even harmful. Key questions: There are five common questions that help discover the essential facts: who, what, where, when, and why? In newspaper reports, it is important to cover these questions at the beginning. Learnership: A coined word used in the place of what was formerly known as apprenticeship. It refers to structured, accredited learning taking place at the workplace. Three parties are involved in a learnership, namely the trainee (learner), the employer and the training provider. Mind-map: Page 48 of 50

The preparation of a graphic representation of key words. Multimedia presentation: A work that uses a combination of media to present information and ideas (e.g. a presentation using slides, computer graphics, posters, and video clips). Nonverbal language/communication: Communication without the use of words, which could be done by gestures or signs or could refer to total body language. Obfuscation: The deliberate use of words/phrases/jargon/idioms that will not be understood by the listener/reader. It is a clouding of the issue to avoid taking responsibility for an action or to confuse the listener into accepting something that should not be lightly accepted. Paraphrase: A restatement of an idea or text in one's own words. Point of view: The position of the speaker in relation to the text and audience (eg third-person/first-person). Power relations: When a particular individual or group dominates. This dominance could be related to gender, race, nationality, politics or language groups. In these unit standards, the focus is on how the use of language (the choice of words) indicates a relationship that is neutral, empowered or disempowered. Reading strategies: Skills and approaches used before, during and after reading to determine the meaning and increase understanding of a text. Examples are: • Scanning: A type of reading used to locate a particular piece of information without necessarily attending to other parts of a text; • Skimming: A type of reading used to identify only the main idea or ideas or to pick out any words in capitals/in italics/underlined, as well as any visuals or font indicators that would help a reader to understand a passage; • Sifting: Selecting the most important ideas, words, facts or finding only those details relevant to a task or purpose. Register: Speech variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation or the same interests. A speaker/writer/presenter must choose words/images that are easily understood by the listener/reader/viewer - the pitch must suit the purpose. Research: Involves a systematic investigation involving the study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and seek out truth. The following stages are involved: selecting a topic, narrowing the focus, locating appropriate resources, gathering information, analysing material and forming conclusions, presenting the information in written and/or oral form, and documenting the sources of information and ideas. Rhetorical question: A question not asked for information but for dramatic effect. The question is usually either one that does not need an answer, as the issue is self-evident, or one that the speaker/writer proceeds to answer immediately. Skills programme: Part of a full qualification which must have at least one credit.

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Slang: Casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. Slang is usually related to age or social group rather than to trade or profession (jargon). It is used to stress an identity for those in the know and to exclude those who do not know the terms, for example, words to describe money, grown-ups, police, and activities. Syntax: The way in which words are arranged to form larger grammatical structures (eg phrases, clauses, and sentences). Technical language: The terminology used in a field or understood by a trade, profession or group of people, eg in metalworking, the term "pig" means a mould for casting metal. It differs from jargon in being more generally understood and used, for example, by many people rather than a few and it does not have the negative connotations that the word "jargon" carries. Text: Texts refer to spoken, written, or visual communications, including sign language that communicates meaning to an audience or reader. A text may be considered from the point of view of its structure, context and function. • Spoken texts can include: Conversations, speeches, interviews, presentations; • Written texts can include: Business correspondence, magazine and newspaper articles, paragraphs, reports, notices, agendas, memos and scripts; • Visual texts can include: Photographs, posters, cartoons, advertisements, environmental prints (road signs), maps, diagrams, charts, and films. Tone: The quality and timbre (distinctive character) of the voice used in speaking; the height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the word. Topic sentence: The sentence that expresses the central idea in a paragraph. Voice: In writing: a work's distinctive style of expression, personal or impersonal, conveyed through the writer's use of vocabulary, and sentence structure. In oral communication: the quality of sound produced by a speaker. In grammar: a property of verbs (e.g. active and passive voice). Writing process: The process involved in producing a polished piece of writing. It comprises several stages. The main stages are: • Generating ideas • Choosing a form of writing to suit the topic, purpose and audience • Developing a plan for writing • Organising ideas • Writing and revising drafts • Editing • Proofreading • Producing and publishing Venn diagram: Graphs that use circles to present connections and intersections.

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