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Volume 28. Issue 4
Journal of the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka
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OFFICE BEARERS 2018 Volume 28. Issue 4
Patron Journal of the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka
His Excellency Maithripala Sirisena, President of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
WNPS General Committee 2018 President Vice Presidents General Secretary Treasurer
Sriyan de Silva Wijeyeratne Mr. Ranil Pieris Mr. Spencer Manuelpillai Mr. Dilshan Hettiaratchi
General Committee Members 1
Loris - Vol. 28. Issue 4, December 2018
Prof. Lakdas D. Fernando Mr. Vidya Abhayagunawardena Ms. Tami Flamer Caldera Dr. [Ms.] Nirmali De Silva Dr. Hemantha Perera Ms. Carlly Tozer
Mr. Rahula Dassenaieke Mr. Ravindralal Anthonis Mr. Jehan CanagaRetna Mr. Avijja Fonseka Ms. Ayanthi Samarajewa Mr. Shanaka Wijesinghe
Ms. Zaineb Akbarally [appointed Sec. 6.10]
ISSN: 0024-6514
Immediate Past President
Mr. Rukshan Jayewardene
Hon. Editor – Loris
Ms. Ayanthi Samarajeewa
Hon. Editor – Warana/Vaaranam
Mr. Vidya Abhayagunawardena
Hon. Auditors M/s. Tudor V. Perera & Company, Chartered Accountant, #296/20, Shanthi Mawatha, Kirulapona. WILDLIFE & NATURE PROTECTION SOCIETY of SRI LANKA #86, Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla. Tele. +94 (0) 11 288 7390 Fax. +94 (0) 11 288 7664 E-mail – [email protected] web – www.wnpssl.org https://www.facebook.com/wnpssl/ https://twitter.com/wnpssl https://www.instagram.com/wnpssl/
The Editor invites contributions not only from members of the Society but also from the public, on matters relevant to biodiversity, natural history and nature conservation in Sri Lanka. LORIS is issued in volumes of six fascicles, the fascicles being issued in June and December each year. CONTRIBUTORS PLEASE NOTE The Society takes no responsibility for the views expressed by authors, which are their own and not necessarily those of the Society. Moreover, the Society publishes all contributions in good faith, assuming that such contributions do not infringe copyright. Hence, all contributors must forward, along with their contributions, a signed letter indemnifying the Society against any liability, loss, damage or expense of any kind (including legal expenses) which an author may incur by reason of any action suit proceedings brought against him or her for damages or any other claim based upon any violation of copyright by any person that may have been or may be claimed to have been infringed by the publication of the contribution(s) in question. Contributions not accompanied by such indemnity will, regrettably, not be considered. © 2018 Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka. Front Cover: Greater Flamingos in Mannar by Nishantha Manjula. Designed by Nelun Harasgama and Raghavan Prem Kumar. Printed by Ceylon Printers (Pvt) Ltd.
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The General Committee of the Wildlife & Nature Protection Society extends its sincere gratitude to the Nations Trust Bank PLC for its generosity and commitment to Wildlife Conservation by being the sole sponsor for the publication of Loris. We also thank all of our other sponsors whose support is vital for the effective administration of the Society. In addition, I would like to thank Nelun Harasgama Nadarajah and Raghavan Prem Kumar for their assistance in the setting up and design of this issue.
Message from Sponsor Renuka Fernando Chief Executive Officer | Nations Trust Bank Conservation through education is a key tenet of Nations Trust Bank’s CSR action. Our support for Wildlife and Nature Protection Society, extending over several years, on its public lecture series and publications, is enabling us to make meaningful progress on this ethos, with the awareness interventions bringing important conservation issues to the fore for public discourse and action. We are pleased to observe yet again the quality of content being published on this Issue of Loris magazine, true to its legacy and repute as the longstanding premier nature and biodiversity magazine in the country. In an effort to further amplify our contribution towards environmental conservation, we recently brought together all our partners including the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society to plan and implement a concerted program of action for 2019 and beyond, that encapsulates wide array of interventions from
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national policy and law to innovative use of finance and technology for biodiversity conservation. Our other partners include among others the Wildlife Conservation Society of Galle, Young Zoologists’ Association, Environmental Foundation Limited, Biofin Initiative and Biodiversity Sri Lanka. We hope that these collaborations that we have enabled will yield positive outcomes and add to the body of knowledge on conservation, enriching content of magazines such as the Loris and Warana/Vaaranam even further. It is our fervent hope that you will be able to use the insights and knowledge shared in this magazine to enhance your contribution to conserve the rich biodiversity of our country and that you will remain engaged in positive, collaborative action mobilized by the active environmental organizations such as the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society.
In this issue
FIELD GUIDE TO THE BUTTERFLIES OF SRI LANKA
GHOSTS IN THE FORESTS – THE LEOPARDS OF WASGAMUWA
THE HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK – A HUB FOR SRI LANKAN WILD FLOWERS
DRIVING ELEPHANTS INTO EXTINCTION: WNPS CAMPAIGNS FOR SANITY TO PREVAIL
THE ELUSIVE FISHING CAT
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MESSAGE FROM SPONSOR
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EDITORIAL
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MANGROVE AND MANGROVE ASSOCIATED SNAILS AND CLAMS IN SRI LANKA
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‘COLOURING OUR FUTURE’:AN INITIATIVE OF THE YOUTH WING OF THE WILDLIFE & NATURE PROTECTION SOCIETY (WNPS)
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FIELD GUIDE TO THE BUTTERFLIES OF SRI LANKA
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GHOSTS IN THE FORESTS – THE LEOPARDS OF WASGAMUWA
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON SHARKS AND SEABIRDS
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MEMBERS GATHERING 2018
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BIODIVERSITY: IT IS EVERYWHERE!
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2018 WATERBIRD CENSUS IN SRI LANKA
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ENDEAVOURS OF A FAR-OFF VILLAGE: PART 2
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MANNAR UNBOUND: A JOURNEY THROUGH HISTORY AND NATURE
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THE HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK – A HUB FOR SRI LANKAN WILD FLOWERS
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DRIVING ELEPHANTS INTO EXTINCTION: WNPS CAMPAIGNS FOR SANITY TO PREVAIL
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THE ELUSIVE FISHING CAT
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THE IMPORTANCE OF IMPLEMENTING SRI LANKA’S LANGUAGE POLICY IN NATURE CONSERVATION
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CLOSE ENCOUNTERS IN THE WILD
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EXPLORING EKGALOYA - WNPS FIELD VISIT
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MURIWAI’S GANNET BREEDING COLONY
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REVISITING THE TAXONOMY OF GRAPSID CRABS OF NEGOMBO LAGOON
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EXPLORING EKGALOYA WNPS FIELD VISIT
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Sponsored by Nations Trust Bank PLC
EDITORIAL As the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka (WNPS) reaches its 125th year we, as a country and society, are facing a daunting task of preserving the last remnants of forests and wildlife of the country. Once we have lost the natural habitats and wildlife that we are blessed with, there is no way back! We cannot go back and restore the uniqueness we had. There is no rewind button. Many countries around the world have made this mistake especially in East Asia where they have lost most of their virgin rainforest and endemic wildlife due to destruction for so-called development. Sri Lanka is trying to develop at a rapid pace and the policymakers and rulers have left the country’s natural environment in the lurch. The Wildlife and Nature Protection Society, which has been in the forefront of wildlife conservation in the past, is fighting battles in many areas to try to get the Government to give more priority to the wildlife of the country. One of our main aims has been to effect policy and to be able to give our input to policy decisions with regards to the wildlife and nature of the country. This sort of work may not be seen or heard of by the public, but this is one our main objectives which we are working towards. Many of our committee are on expert panels and advisory boards that help the relevant departments with advice with regards to wildlife when making plans for the future. This is no easy task as the protection of our natural environment, sadly, is the least important aspect on the agenda. We have a treasure trove within our land and instead of protecting it with our life and ensuring we showcase this wildlife to the world, while ensuring both the country and its people benefit from it, we are seeing it being crushed and destroyed daily. Our last remaining, magnificent, tuskers are being shot on a weekly basis. They make the headlines but within a few days it’s gone off the news. The WNPS are working together with other conservation partners like the Environment Foundation Ltd. (EFL) to prosecute and bring to justice some of these wildlife criminals. The Society has set up a Legal Fund which will help to fight these cases and try to set a precedent for the future so that it 6
would, at least, deter some of these perpetrators from harming the wildlife of this country for a small personal gain. The WNPS hopes to work together with other conservation organizations so that we present a united front to try our best to preserve the wildlife we have. Another critical issue the society faces is firefighting issues that come up on a daily basis in our jungles, mainly the Human - Wildlife Conflicts which now not only includes the conflicts with elephants but Leopards and other wildlife as well. This is an ongoing battle that doesn’t seem to have short-term solutions. We need to have long-term plans that ensure both the animals and humans learn to co-exist, and these have to be implemented at ground level. Creating awareness of the value of the wildlife that we have, especially among the rural communities, is another one of our main priorities; spreading the message to the people who live with wildlife and forests so that they can benefit from it, and work to protect it. Ultimately it is the people living with wildlife that need to know of their value and gain from it. The Youth Wing of the WNPS is working towards educating the younger generation of the country and we hope this will have a longer lasting and positive effect on our wildlife and nature. Towards this end, sustainability is a critical aspect of our wildlife especially for a developing country like Sri Lanka. The policymakers need to see a monetary and social value in protecting and preserving our wildlife. However, there needs to be a careful balance between earning from our wildlife vs the animal’s welfare and freedom. Tourism is a double-edged sword for wildlife where it can help to benefit it, up to a point, but thereafter, when ‘show casing’ the animals and wild places, starts to destroy the very places we are trying to protect and it can become a curse. We, as the premier wildlife protection society in Sri Lanka, battle on with the help of our members, corporate supporters and the general public. We do hope that our efforts will bear fruit in saving and preserving our wildlife and wild places for our future generations.
MANGROVE AND MANGROVE ASSOCIATED SNAILS AND CLAMS IN SRI LANKA Malik Fernando
Introduction Mangroves are important coastal and estuarine habitats. They are under threat in the course of development activities. Many studies have been done on them in Sri Lanka, essentially concentrating on mangrove flora and a few faunal species. The molluscan fauna has been poorly studied. The author has been able to collect a number of species of snails and clams from mangroves and associated habitats, such as salt marshes and brackish water ponds and lakes/lagoons that often fringe mangroves, in the course of his wonderings over many years. Not all brackish water forms have been included, only those associated with mangrove habitats. Identification has proved troublesome owing to the author’s inability to compare specimens with named museum specimens, but with the development of
the internet in recent years the situation has changed for the better. Identification has been made possible by the availability on-line of numerous colour images of snails; literature to confirm these identifications has also come within reach. This article is more or less an identification guide to many mangrove and mangrove associated species of snails and bivalve clams in Sri Lanka. All names have been verified based on inclusion in the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS). The named specimens are available in the author’s collection and may be seen by anyone desiring to compare with their own collections. The locations given are of places where the specimens have been collected by the author. It is hoped that this compilation will be useful for other workers to expand on the distribution of these taxa within Sri Lanka. Fourteen species of snails and six species of bivalves have been identified in mangroves and lagoonal and estuarine backwaters associated with mangroves. Two species of wood-boring bivalves that most likely originated from a mangrove habitat are included, as well as a mud-dwelling slug that was once seen on a mangrove mud-flat. The species are numbered sequentially in the list of species and identified by the same number in the illustrations.
PLATE 1: MANGROVE GASTROPODS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Cassidula nucleus, 22mm Ellobium gangeticum 23mm Melampus ceylonicus 14mm Melampus fasciatus 12mm Pythia plicata 17mm Littoraria scabra 10.2mm Nerita polita 24mm Cerithidea quoyii 23.4mm Pirenella cingulata 25mm Pirenella conica 19mm Telescopium telescopium 98mm Terebralia palustris 99mm Haminoea crocata 15mm Faunus ater 72mm (Sizes of largest collected)
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Habits, habitats and distribution GASTROPOD SNAILS EAR SHELLS: The members of the family Ellobiidae comprising the ear shells and the coffee bean shells are found on mangrove stems and leaves, or on the muddy ground amongst leaf litter. Cassidula nucleus is an ear shell that is fairly common. It has been found at Kalpitiya, Maggona and Kaluamodera—amongst leaf litter in dried-up mangrove and on the stems and leaves of mangrove vegetation standing in water. Ellobium gangeticum, on the other hand, appears to be uncommon. We found this species on low, straggling, terrestrial vegetation and amongst leaf litter at the border of a mangrove at Vanathavillu. It was listed as being a member of the mangrove fauna at the ‘6HDFRORJ\6XGHHVD0DQJURYH0XVHXP¶ in Chilaw. COFFEE BEANS: The coffee bean shell Melampus ceylonicus was first seen by us and observed for many years at the base of a grassy bank by the seashore at Mount Lavinia. It had no doubt reached that spot by hitching a ride on floating vegetation that washed up on the beach and thereafter established a colony. This is a southern species, having also been collected at Maggona, the somewhat similar M. fasciatus having being collected only from the eastern and western shores of the Puttalam lagoon. Also found on the mangrove vegetation on both sides of the Puttalam lagoon was the folded ear shell Pythia plicata. This is a widely distributed species having been collected from mangroves of the Maduganga, Koggala lake (Gan duwa), Akurala and the Lunama lagoon. PERIWINKLES: Littoraria scabra is one of a number of species of periwinkles in the country, mostly inhabiting the rocky sea shore. This species, however, is found exclusively on mangrove plants. It appears to be rare, with a restricted distribution, as we have only collected one specimen from a roadside mangrove at Cod Bay, in Trincomalee. Pinto (1986) reports it from Negombo, an area that we have not explored. Pinto also reports Nerita polita attached to mangrove roots.
We have collected them only from the rocky shore at four sites in the Trincomalee area. They are variously patterned in black and white or light brown, sometimes with orange tints. Another snail with a seemingly restricted distribution reported by Pinto from Negombo mangroves but not found by us is Cerithidea quoyii (formerly Cerithidea quadrata or obtusa). Our only specimen is a weathered beach find collected at Kachchativu by Prof. Devaka Weerakoon and Arjan Rajasuriya. This is a horn shell in the family Potamididae, two other members of the family being very common and two uncommon. Horn shells of this family are also called mud creepers as they live on shallow muddy bottoms, sometimes even being exposed during low tides, but C. quoyii is said to be found on the stems and leaves of vegetation. HORN SHELLS: Pirenella cingulata (formerly Cerithideopsilla cingulata) is perhaps the commonest, being found on the muddy bottoms of areas adjacent to mangroves as well as on the muddy shores of estuaries and lagoons. They are often exposed at low tide on mud flats. Pirenella conica is an uncommon horn shell, variably and strikingly patterned in black and white, sometimes with yellow or brown. It lives in shallow water, on mud bottoms. We have found it in a salt marsh pool at Vanathavillu as well as in the salt marsh at Mandaitivu, in Jaffna, and also in a pond in Mannar. Telescopium telescopium and Terebralia palustris are two large mud creepers. The former occurs on mud flats and the latter in the waterways of mangroves in large numbers. T. telescopium is not as widely distributed as Terebralia. Two sightings on mudflats in Trincomalee and Batticaloa have not been confirmed by collection but they were collected from the mud floor of a dried-up mangrove at Kayankerni, amongst leaf litter. They were numerous at this site. MUD CREEPERS: Terebralia palustris (uri in Sinhala) occurs in very large numbers in shallow water in mangroves and is collected by local lagoon fishermen who use the soft parts of the animal to bait their fishing hooks. They are brown or reddish-brown in colour, the colouring said to be influenced by organic substances in the decaying vegetation amongst which they live. A. C. M. Niyas, a shell enthusiast in Kalpitiya, has collected this species from a location with “white mud”, as he described. The shells are off-white in colour with coloured bands (No. 12a in the plate). Immature shells are very attractive. PLATE 2: MANGROVE BIVALVES 15. Corbicula solida 33mm 16. Geloina coaxons 107mm 17. Magallana belcheri 100mm 18. Magallana bilineata 95mm 19. Saccostrea scyphophilla 35mm 20. Saccostrea cucullata 75mm (Sizes of largest collected)
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BUBBLE SHELLS: Haminoea crocata, Pease’s paper bubble, is in the family Haminoeidae. Bubble shells, as they are called, possess thin-walled, egg-shaped shells into which the animal cannot retract fully. When active the whole shell is hidden by the blackish-brown coloured soft tissues of the animal, blending in with the mud and debris-strewn bottom of the ponds in which they live. We found them in the same Vanathavillu salt marsh pond that harboured Pirenella conica, and also as empty shells in a dried-up mangrove marsh in Kalpitiya, and marooned by receding waters at the edge of the Mundal lake. The shell is white in colour, covered by a translucent yellow-brown periostracum. BLACK FAUNUS: The black faunus, Faunus ater, is in the family Thiaridae that includes mostly freshwater species. Another mud dweller, it was first collected at Negombo close to the mangrove vegetation bordering the lagoon at Kadolkele. It is a very dark brown colour and dead shells can be found on the banks of other lagoons and estuaries too, such as at Chilaw, Batticaloa and Maggona.
BIVALVES MANGROVE CLAMS: Only a few species of bivalves have been identified in the brackish waters of mangrove associated environments. The large Geloina coaxons, called ‘kadolmatti’ in Sinhala, is large and heavy with a black periostracum that covers a white shell. It is found in the mud of waterways flowing through or around mangroves. The much smaller Corbicula solida has been collected from the Rekawa and Palatupana lagoons living on muddy bottoms. Old literature probably described this as a freshwater species because it is described as such in the illustrated guide to freshwater mollusca of Sri Lanka by Amritha Peiris et al (2015). These are both free-living species in the family Cyrenidae. OYSTERS: Four oyster species in the family Ostreidae have been collected from habitats fringing mangroves, all attached to hard substrates unlike the preceding species. The small oyster Saccostrea scyphophilla seems to like attaching itself to small objects. At Palameenmadu in Batticaloa, adjacent to mangrove vegetation we found this oyster attached to the shells of Terebralia palustris that were gliding along the muddy sand bottom in shallow water. At Chilaw they had attached to the shells of Faunus ater. They have also been found in sea water attached to a large bivalve at Kayankerni and attached to quartz pebbles at Mud Cove in Trincomalee where they were exposed on the mud at low tide. At the Koggala lake we found them clustered on mangrove stems, at the waterline. Here they looked different and were at first thought to be Saccostrea cucullata. ROCK OYSTER: Saccostrea cucullata is a very common oyster found along the seashore on rocky coastlines exposed to heavy surf. The shells are thick and usually eroded. They also grow in brackish water lagoons where they attach themselves to mangrove roots (Pinto, 1986)
and rocky substrates. In this environment the shells are thin and uneroded, growing in crowded clumps when they may be difficult to distinguish from the previous species. We have found a single valve in the Pottuvil lagoon tentatively identified as this species and a number of faded and damaged valves on the banks of a waterway off the southern end of the Negombo lagoon. Pinto refers to Saccostrea cucullata and Crassostrea madrasensis (now re-named Magallana bilineata) as being common on mangrove roots. He also mentions that Crassostrea shells “are long and comparatively large,” a description that better describes Magallana belcheri (formerly Crassostrea belcheri). We have found M. belcheri at many brackish water bodies with fringing mangroves: Pottuvil lagoon attached on bottom rocks; Mundal lake on the mud bottom attached to other bivalve shells; Koggala lake at the water line of emergent rocks; Kalpitiya and Chilaw lagoons, empty on shore, probably collected for eating or use as bait for fishing; Batticaloa lagoon, clustered on rock, on the sand bottom in the vicinity of mangroves. This is the species that turns up at hotel buffets. MADRAS OYSTER: Magallana bilineata (formerly Crassostrea madrasensis) is mainly a brackish water species and has been collected attached to rocks at Palatupana lagoon. On the Mundal lake shore, they were found attached to the air roots of the mangrove plant Avicennia. We have also found it growing in the Trincomalee harbour attached to a pen shell (Atrina vexillum).
What more? WOOD BORERS: This is not an exhaustive list – there are more species of bivalves (and others) awaiting discovery. We have found two genera of bivalve wood-borers in beached drift wood logs, their origin unknown. Both genera are described from mangrove habitats, as well as occurring in other marine and brackish water habitats. A soft wood log on a Jaffna island (Analaitivu) beach yielded Martesia striata and a species of shipworm (family Teredinidae). The shipworm could not be identified as parts of the animal essential for identification were missing. Another species of shipworm was recovered from a hardwood log washed ashore at Erakkandy, north of Trincomalee. Many species in a number of genera have been identified in India—we just need to look for them. MUD SLUGS: One molluscan species we know of has eluded re-collection for many years. Mud-dwelling slugs of the genus Onchidium were seen on a mangrove mud-flat at Kalpitiya many years ago. When collection was attempted some years later the mud had dried up, only shells of Haminoea crocata were left, the mud slug having no shell to leave behind. Many species in the family Onchidiidae are described worldwide, three being reported from the Sundarbans (Dey, 2006).
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Saccostrea scyphophilla (Peron & Lesueur, 1807) [piggy-back oyster] Ostreidae Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1778) [rock, hooded or Bombay oyster] Ostreidae Wood-boring Bivalves Martesia striata (Linnaeus, 1758) [striate martesia] Pholadidae “Teredo” spp. [shipworms] Teredinidae
Bibliography Das, A.K. & M.K. Dev Roy (1980). On the Wood-Boring Molluscs of South Andamans, India, Rec. zool. Surv. India, 77: 179-187, 1980. http://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/records/077/01-04/01790187.pdf No. 21. Martesia striata: A log with many bore-holes perpendicular to the surface. The rear end of the shell is exposed. Inset is a shell in situ (up to 15.5 mm long) exposed in its bore-hole.
Demas Bin Yahya @ Demas Lai (2004). Species Diversity and Distribution of Marine Wood Borers in Blungei Bay Mangrove Area, Lundu, Kuching, Sarawak, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. (BSc dissertation) https://ir.unimas.my/17639/1/Species%20diversity%20 and%20distribution%20of%20marine%20wood%20 borers%20in%20Blungei%20Bay%20Mangrove%20area..%20 (24%20pages).pdf Dey, Anirudha (2006). Handbook on Mangrove Associated Molluscs of Sundarbans, The Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Fernando, Malik (2009). Shells of the Sri Lanka Seashore, Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka. IUCN Information Brief on Mangroves in Sri Lanka. Available at: http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/sri_lanka_information_brief_ of_mangroves.pdf, accessed 4.7.2018. Kirtisinghe, Parakrama (1978). Sea shells of Sri Lanka, Tuttle, Tokyo.
No. 22. “Teredo” sp.: A transverse section of the same log as in No. 21 showing shipworm bore-holes running longitudinally. Inset (top left) is a bore-hole dissected to show its characteristic calcified lining and (bottom right) are the two valves (10 mm in the long axis).
List of species Gastropods Cassidula nucleus (Gmelin, 1791) [nucleus cassidula] Ellobiidae Ellobium gangeticum (Pfeiffer, 1855) [Ganges ear shell] Ellobiidae Melampus ceylonicus (Petit de la Saussaye, 1843) [Ceylon coffee bean shell] Ellobiidae Melampus fasciatus (Deshayes, 1830) [striped coffee bean shell] Ellobiidae Pythia plicata (Férussac, 1821) [folded ear shell] Ellobiidae Littoraria scabra (Linnaeus, 1758) [rough periwinkle] Littorinidae Nerita polita Linnaeus, 1758 [polished nerite] Neritidae Cerithidea quoyii (Hombron & Jacquinot, 1848) Potamididae Pirenella cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) [girdled horn shell] Potamididae Pirenella conica (Blainville, 1829) [conical horn shell] Potamididae Telescopium telescopium (Linnaeus, 1758) [telescope shell] Potamididae Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) [northern mud creeper] Potamididae Haminoea crocata Pease, 1860 [Pease’s paper bubble] Haminoeidae Faunus ater (Born, 1778) [black faunus] Thiaridae Bivalves Corbicula solida Clessin, 1887 [solid marsh clam] Cyrenidae Geloina coaxans (Gmelin, 1791) [common geloina] Cyrenidae Magallana belcheri ((G. B. Sowerby II, 1871) [Belcher’s oyster] Ostreidae Magallana bilineata (Röding, 1798) [Madras oyster] Ostreidae
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Liyanage Sunil (1998). Conservation of Biodiversity in Mangrove Ecosystem in Sri Lanka, Abstract, Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium, Sri Lanka. Published by Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Available at: http://journals.sjp.ac.lk/index. php/fesympo/article/view/1417, accessed 4.7.2018. Mendis, A. S. and C. H. Fernando (1962). A Guide to the Freshwater Fauna of Ceylon, Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Station, Ceylon. Vol. 12, pp. 51 - 59 (Mollusca), Fisheries Research Station, Ceylon. Museum, British (2013). pp. 22-3. Catalogue of Auriculidoe, Proserpinidoe, and Truncatelidoe in the Collection of the British Museum. London: Forgotten Books. (Original work published 1857). Available at: http://www.forgottenbooks.com/readbook_text/ Catalogue_of_Auriculidoe_Proserpinidoe_and_Truncatelidoe_in_ the_1000710784/27. Peiris A, Naggs F, Preece RC, Taylor H and White TS (2015). An illustrated guide to the freshwater Mollusca of Sri Lanka. Joint Conchological Society / Malacological Society Publication, SRP Ltd, Exeter. Pinto, Leonard (1986). Mangroves of Sri Lanka, Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Petit de la Saussaye S (1843). Descriptions of New Species of Shells belonging to the Genus Auricula, collected by H. Cuming, Esq. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 10(119): 201-202. Ranawana KB (2017). Mangroves of Sri Lanka, Publication of Seacology - Sudeesa Mangrove Museum 1(1) 2017: 25-28. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322924654_ Mangroves_of_Sri_Lanka, accessed 4.7.2018. Reid DG & Ozawa T (2016). The genus Pirenella Gray, 1847 (= Cerithideopsilla Thiele, 1929) (Gastropoda: Potamididae) in the Indo-West Pacific region and Mediterranean Sea. Zootaxa. 4076(1): 1-91., available online at https://doi.org/10.11646/ zootaxa.4076.1.1 Siddiqui KU, Islam MA, Kabir SMH, Ahmad M, Ahmed ATA, Rahman AKA, Haque EU, Ahmed ZU, Begum ZNT, Hassan MA, Khondker M and Rahman MM (eds.) (2007). Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh, Vol. 17. Molluscs. 415 pp, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dhaka. World Register of Marine Species. Available from http://www. marinespecies.org at VLIZ.
Images © Rukshan Jayewardene
‘COLOURING OUR FUTURE’: An initiative of the Youth Wing of the Wildlife & Nature Protection Society (WNPS) Chethana Gomez Committee Member of the Youth Wing of the WNPS
&
Zaineb Akbarally Member of the General Committee of the WNPS & of its Youth Wing
³:HVKDUHDGHHSVHQVHRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRZDUGVWKHSODQHWDQGDUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLPSRUWDQFH of protecting its wonders. Our shared goal is to advance human knowledge, raise awareness of WKHSODQHW¶VFKDOOHQJHVDQGLWVPDUYHOVDQGWRLQVSLUHWKHQH[WJHQHUDWLRQWRVHHNVROXWLRQVWKDWZLOO HQVXUHDKHDOWK\DQGVXVWDLQDEOHIXWXUH´ - Gary E. Knell- President, National Geographic Society The Youth Wing of the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society, which was launched a year ago, has developed into a dynamic and vibrant arm of the Society, inspiring a new generation of conservation leaders. In the year leading up to the Poster Competition, the members of the Youth Wing conducted a series of lectures pertaining to conservation at a total of 18 schools participating in the programme, followed by a day’s excursion to the national parks - Wilpattu, Uda Walawe and Bundala – for the majority of them. Eight (8) of the schools that participated in this initiative were located in close proximity to the national parks and / or lived in areas of high human-elephant contact. This is a crucial aspect of the programme. Many of these children, despite living on the fringes of these national parks, have never had the opportunity to actually visit and experience the beauty and diversity of these protected areas. Giving these children an opportunity to experience wildlife in their native domain is key, since this can be a way to instil an awe of the natural world and an aspiration amongst these children to be passionate custodians of the fauna and flora that surrounds them. On conclusion of the lectures and field trips, the schools were briefed about a Poster Competition where five (5) students were selected (by the respective schools) and provided with special ‘Elephant Dung paper’ on
which to present their work. On the 21st of October 2018, the Poster Competition, µ&RORXULQJ2XU)XWXUH¶opened its doors at the Lionel Wendt Art Gallery. All schools ‘checked in’ at least one and half hours before the event, to display their exhibits at the designated places. The empty walls of the art gallery were soon filled with vibrant colours, and a sense of optimism and anticipation filled the air. The schoolchildren showcased their perspectives on the state of the planet in the present, and of what it could possibly be in the future, highlighting possible solutions for environmental related problems. The art on display was emotive and highlighted both a ‘best’ and ‘worst’ case scenario. Their predictions of a plastic strewn environment for the future was a powerful reminder to all the adults who saw them that the actions of today are leaving an imprint on the minds of the youth of this world. In this regard, we hope the event was successful in its aim to instil a value amongst all, of the importance of preserving our islands fauna and flora, and natural environment. The event began with a welcome for the Chief Guests and the Panel of Judges by the Committee of the Youth Wing. The comperes, Upekshi Perera and Ashan Wijetilleke, both Committee Members of the Youth Wing, then addressed the audience starting with an 11
introduction to the history of the WNPS, followed by a few words about the inception and mission of the Youth Wing.
their competition; and Ms. Sharon De Silva, Senior Manager – Corporate Sustainability of the NDB Bank, the main sponsor of the Youth Wing.
Each school was given seven (7) minutes to explain their work to the Judges. Many exhibits touched on the current topics of the Human-Elephant Conflict, Plastic Pollution and Climate Change. Visitors, parents and the judges were captivated by the outstanding quality of the art and moved by the inspirational messages of the compositions.
Whilst Gampola Kanishta Vidyalaya, Galgamuwa won the Champions Shield, Musaeus College, Colombo 07 and Vidyartha Maha Vidyalaya, Tissamaharama were placed 2nd and 3rd respectively. In addition, every student received a Certificate of Participation for their excellent contribution and hard work.
The Judges were left with the formidable task of selecting the best three (3) schools. They were Dr. Pathmananth Samaraweera, one of Sri Lanka’s foremost wildlife artists as well as being a wildlife photographer and conservationist of renown; Mr. Laksthitha Karunarathna is a wildlife photographer who is a true believer in conservation and awareness through photography and a Grand Prize winner of Nature’s Best Photography awarded by the Smithsonian Institute in
It was a pleasant sight to see the students from outstation and Colombo schools conversing with each other during and after the event. The competitive atmosphere seemed to fade away due to the enthusiasm and warmth expressed during these interactions. As the final hours of the evening set in, goodbyes were said and the children returned home, some having to make long journeys to their rural abodes on the boundaries of Sri Lanka’s last remaining jungle
Images © Rukshan Jayewardene
12
refuges. Silence reigned, once more, in the Gallery still adorned with the artistic creations of these newly inspired young conservationists. To the Committee of the Youth Wing, working with these students and sharing this adventure with them has been a truly remarkable experience. None of this would have been possible if not for the administrative skills, fund raising ability, motivational excellence, and untiring efforts of Jehan CanagaRetna, the Chairperson of the Youth Wing.
With his continued guidance, the future of the Youth Wing looks bright and exciting as we bring into our fold more team members and set the ground work to spread the mission of conservation amongst schoolchildren. The focus in 2019 will be the North and East, and the emerging conservation issues there. In the youth of Sri Lanka resides its future. ³:HGRQRWLQKHULWWKH(DUWKIURPRXU$QFHVWRUVZH ERUURZLWIURPRXUFKLOGUHQ´ American Proverb
13
FIELD GUIDE TO THE BUTTERFLIES OF SRI LANKA George Michael van der Poorten and Nancy E. van der Poorten. 2018. Lepodon Books, Toronto, Canada. ISBN: 978-1-77136-605-2. vi, 250 pages, 19.05 cm x 12.06 cm, 350 grams, with flexible covers. Reviewed by D. P. Wijesinghe, Department of Natural Sciences, LaGuardia Community College, Long Island City, New York. This new book on the butterflies of Sri Lanka by the husband and wife team of George and Nancy van der Poorten comes a little over two years after the publication of the authors’ magnum opus, The Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka (2016), a book widely regarded (with good reason) as the standard work on the subject. It needs to be stated at the outset that the book under review is not a simplified and shortened version of the 2016 book but an entirely new work which is not only designed to meet the need of field identification of butterflies in Sri Lanka but is also the most up to date and accurate account of the composition of the butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka. Unlike the previous monograph this field guide is a much more portable book designed to be carried in the field, measuring seven and a half inches by four and three quarter inches and weighing just over 12 ounces. The small size of the book is deceptive, however, because packed between its covers is a wealth of information. The book is superbly designed and organized with ease of accurate identification of species in mind. Introductory sections of the book deal with climatic zones in Sri Lanka and butterfly distribution, the anatomy and life cycle of butterflies, butterfly conservation, tips on how and where to observe butterflies and ways of enhancing gardens to attract butterflies. Following a section on how to use the book (explaining the organization of the book and the significance of various types of information, how to use keys, etc.) the main body of the field guide occupies pages 25-205, where the identification of butterflies is covered in detail, organized by family (Hesperidae, Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Riodinidae). For each family a brief introduction is provided, which is followed by details for identifying species, with the information presented in text and carefully selected photographs on facing pages. For some species distribution maps are inserted next to the species accounts, for others (the majority) these are given in Appendix A. A useful feature of the book is the addition of arrows to photographs pointing out diagnostic features for telling apart some confusingly similar species. Another useful feature is the juxtaposition of superficially similar species on the same page even if they are not closely related, allowing easy
14
comparison. Appendix B provides a complete checklist of the butterflies of Sri Lanka and includes taxonomic notes explaining recent changes in the status and nomenclature of species and subspecies, mostly since the publication of the 2016 monograph. Appendix C is a list of host plants, which is followed by a glossary, and there is a brief list of references relevant to this book. The distribution maps (next to species’ accounts or in Appendix A) are a notable feature of this book and they are probably the first published maps for butterflies in Sri Lanka; no such maps were included in the 2016 publication. Records for individual species are indicated by different colored dots: blue (historical records prior to 1950), red (confirmed records after 1950), orange (doubtful records). A little more explanation regarding “confirmed” and “doubtful” records (e.g. specimen or photograph supported or not) would have been helpful. Over the last few decades there has been a significant increase in the number of field guides and similar books for identifying various kinds of organisms in Sri Lanka, with birds, butterflies, reptiles and mammals perhaps being the groups most often featured. This is probably partly due to an increase in local awareness and interest in wildlife, the environment and conservation, and also due to an increase in ecotourism. While most of these new publications are interesting and commendable in many ways they vary in accuracy and scientific merit. A search in the online catalogues of retailers of natural history books will turn up a number of books dealing with the butterflies of Sri Lanka and someone looking for a book for identifying butterflies in Sri Lanka may feel unsure which book is best. The answer is quite simple: George and Nancy van der Poorten’s Field Guide to the Butterflies of Sri Lanka is the most accurate and best designed book for identifying butterflies in the field in Sri Lanka. If you are interested in the butterflies of Sri Lanka you will want to have this book and if you intend to observe and identify butterflies in the field in Sri Lanka you need this book! Field Guide to the Butterflies of Sri Lanka is available from Pemberley Books (www.pemberleybooks.com) and BioQuip (www.bioquip.com), and is also available direct from the authors (www.lepodonbooks.com). The book is available in Sri Lanka in leading bookstores.
GHOSTS IN THE FORESTS – The Leopards of Wasgamuwa Chandima Fernando & Ravi Corea – Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society (slwcs.org) As dusk descended, gradually obliterating the land of its features, we slowly headed towards the entrance to the Wasgamuwa National Park. We cruised slowly on the dusty dirt track that wound alongside the dried grass plains. And then suddenly, there by the forest edge, was a solitary leopard! It was sitting on its haunches with its head and shoulders showing above and blending beautifully with the rustling grass now tinted a golden hue by the sinking sun. From its alert posture we deduced it was on the hunt. Slowly drawing to a halt we experienced probably one of the rarest encounters in Wasgamuwa - meeting a Ghost of the Forest, the Sri Lankan Leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya).
A unique wilderness One of the most striking features of Wasgamuwa is the incredible diversity of its flora and fauna, which is exquisitely unique with a high endemicity, with most of the island’s large and small mammals inhabiting the region. The occurrence of diverse habitat types in Wasgamuwa is one of the primary contributing factors to this. Wasgamuwa is also an Important Bird Area in Sri Lanka. Interestingly, the name “Wasgamuwa” is derived from the past when this entire region was known as “Walas Gamuwa,” the Land of the Bear. Besides conducting research on human-elephant conflicts and developing sustainable measures for its mitigation, we want to understand the rich biodiversity in the region and identify current threats to help in their protection and conservation. With the issue of human-
elephant conflict making the headlines, the conservation status of other wildlife in the island is often overlooked. This is rather unfortunate since Wasgamuwa is one of the few places in Sri Lanka where you can observe all the mega carnivores and herbivores in the country. Furthermore, almost all our mesocarnivores, such as civets and mongooses, also inhabit the forests in Wasgamuwa. Apart from one scientific research project conducted in 2003 on the sloth bear, no other research has been conducted since then and very little is known about the carnivores in Wasgamuwa.
Challenges of research The biggest challenge to studying terrestrial mammalian carnivores in Sri Lanka is that they are elusive. Adding to this is that almost all of them are mostly nocturnal and solitary in their habits. In 2005, we made an effort to assess the forest reserves in Wasgamuwa for the presence of leopards by using remote cameras. The fact that even with definite physical signs such as scat, pug marks, and scratch posts quite evident not one animal was recorded by the cameras. This fruitless effort was called ‘The Pooping Ghost Project’; the name aptly reflecting the frustrations we felt since we frequently encountered fresh piles of scat giving evidence of the presence of leopards but were unable to get one photograph for visual confirmation. This highlights again the difficulties of observing or finding these animals in the wild even with the aid of remote cameras. Another challenge was the prevalence of poachers in the park which resulted in the theft of
15
nearly 80 percent of the cameras due to which the project had to be abandoned. A renewed effort was made, ten years later, in 2016 with the main objective of collecting ecological data on the leopards in Wasgamuwa using remote cameras. This research is being carried out in collaboration with the Department of Wildlife and Conservation (DWC) and we are also supported by Dr. Anthony Giordano of the Society for the Preservation of Endangered Carnivores & their International Ecological Study (S.P.E.C.I.E.S.) based in the USA. Remote camera traps are one of the most effective and non-invasive tools conservationists and scientists use to obtain information about wildlife. Camera traps are helping scientists to collect a wealth of data on the presence, demography, habitat use, different behaviours and threats to rare and threatened species around the world who are usually not easily observable in the wild. Unlike the leopards in Yala and Wilpattu, the leopards in Wasgamuwa are very elusive and getting scientific data through direct observations is impossible. The use of remote cameras has helped to overcome this challenge and allowed us to collect a wealth of information about leopards, other carnivore species and animals in Wasgamuwa.
Captured on camera In 2017, with the permission and collaboration of the DWC, we deployed a range of remote camera traps inside the Wasgamuwa National Park and in the forests outside the park. Over a period of 12 months, we set up 85 camera stations mainly in the southern and eastern areas of the National Park covering an area of 85.5 square kilometres. This is approximately one quarter of the total area of the park which is 393 square kilometres in extent. In the area outside the national park, we set up 17 camera traps in an area covering 3.5 kilometres of disturbed habitat that is frequently used by people.
16
Our total camera effort in the first year was 2, 662 camera trap days capturing 234 leopard images in total, which makes it one of the most rigorous camera trapping research efforts in Sri Lanka. While we are still in the process of analyzing this data, with the aid of image analysis software, the preliminary findings are amazing! In a highly disturbed habitat that is 3.5 square kilometres in area and located outside the Wasgamuwa National Park, there are two males and four female leopards. In recent photos, one of the females was with two adolescent cubs. It seems these leopards are thriving even though they are in an area that sees frequent human traffic, both vehicular and pedestrian, and yet there are eight leopards inhabiting this area. Through our research we are seeing how versatile and adaptable leopards are. Some of our cameras have captured leopards on the very edge and in human dominated landscapes avoiding humans effectively as they occupy such marginal habitats. Inside the park, in an 85.5 square kilometre area, there are fourteen female leopards and seven males. Our initial analysis shows the leopard density in our study area is similar to that in other national parks where leopards live under relative protection. It could be assumed that there is a fairly healthy population living in Wasgamuwa, at least in the areas we are monitoring with remote cameras. But considering there is a high level of poaching and other illegal activities in certain areas of the park, we need to be cautious in our assumptions since we cannot obtain data on leopards in these areas. Our research efforts, and the challenges we face, further validates why we should be proactive in our conservation efforts to ensure the long term protection of leopards in Wasgamuwa. In addition to our camera trapping effort, we aim to scientifically study the foraging ecology of leopards by analyzing their scat. This will help us to systematically understand the ecology of leopards in Wasgamuwa and threats to their survival including parasitic infestations and diseases that afflict them, which will help us to develop effective measures for their conservation and management.
The other secret inhabitants of the forest During the first year of the project, in addition to leopards, we were able to capture 30 species of mammals. We were able to gather substantial information on the Sloth Bear and on the three small wild cat species: Jungle Cat, Fishing Cat, and the Rusty-spotted Cat. Our camera traps have recorded all three species giving us very useful information and insights into their lives. Another species of concern is the Pangolin. According to findings from our research, the Pangolin is one of the most targeted species for poachers. We have frequently encountered campfires deep in the forests where pangolins had been butchered and consumed by poachers, their scales scattered on the forest floor. Again the cameras are providing us valuable information on the habitat selection of Pangolins and threats to their survival. Camera trapping is a very exciting research technique yet there are some serious challenges to using them effectively. One of the main issues is losing valuable cameras to poachers who come into the national park and outlying forests to hunt illegally. Poachers destroyed or stole, in total, nine cameras last year, which is very frustrating because it is such an impediment to our research and conservation efforts. The poachers are a threat to our own safety as well since they are armed and also set trap guns in the jungle. Elephants are another huge challenge—they destroyed eight cameras at the beginning of our research. But we have found an effective solution for that.
Future research In our second year, our aim is to find out the density of leopards in the Wasgamuwa National Park. In order to do that we will set up paired camera stations on well-used travel paths of leopards which we had identified last year. We will adopt the spatial capturerecapture model (SCR) with individual level identification to get very accurate density information.
The current perceptions people have about leopards are mostly centred on human–leopard conflicts due to a few scattered incidents that had received wide media coverage. While it is important to look into these incidences—conflict mitigation is just one aspect of conservation and there are other major components of conservation that need to be addressed. To do so, we need empirical information such as baseline ecological data especially related to habitat requirements and the prey base of leopards. In reality, human-leopard conflict is less of an issue at present especially considering that our research is showing how leopards are living in close proximity to people. Therefore, one would expect far more intense and frequent conflict than what is reported as scattered encounters. The more concerning issues are that we know so little about leopards especially as to their population and behaviour, their ranging, territory sizes, prey base, birth rate, death rate, and the dispersal of young leopards. This knowledge is vital especially in the face of ongoing habitat loss and other negative anthropogenic impacts which could eventually result in escalating and intensifying conflict similar to that being experienced with people and elephants. Illegal killing of leopards is another serious threat about which very little is known. Our cameras are providing us with some of this baseline ecological data and this information would help us to take conservation actions accordingly, such as protecting habitats and prey species that are critical for the conservation of leopards in Wasgamuwa. The Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society has been implementing practical community-based conservation measures for two decades. Adhering to the conservation philosophy we follow, that we need to work with communities and they must benefit from our research and conservation efforts—the SLWCS is now reaching out to these communities—especially those who have leopards practically living on their doorstep, to establish conservation measures which would generate benefits to them as well to the leopards.
17
Plate 1. Bigeye Thresher Shark. Image by Jayantha Jinasena © FOGSL
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON SHARKS AND SEABIRDS Rex I. De Silva – [email protected] This paper includes three short notes which update earlier articles in Loris of which I am either author or co-author (De Silva, 2017, 2018, Ebert et al. 2016).
Note 1. Family Alopiidae (Thresher Sharks): the most threatened shark family in Sri Lanka. The family Alopiidae includes three species of thresher sharks. They are (1) Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus), (2) Pelagic Thresher (A. pelagicus) and (3) Bigeye Thresher (A. superciliosus). All three species are present in Sri Lanka where they are protected by law and fishing for these species is prohibited (Anon, 2015). The three species are viviparous breeders which means that the female retains eggs in her uteri where the young develop and after a period of gestation are born alive (De Silva, 2015). Sharks are, in general, very slow breeders and threshers are especially so; their low fecundity makes them very vulnerable to overfishing. I had earlier warned of the dangers posed to threshers by catch and release fishing and readers are directed to that paper for more information (De Silva, 2018). Worldwide threshers are the second most threatened family of sharks after Angelsharks (Ebert et al. 2013). The Angelshark family (Squatinidae) is a temperate zone taxon which is not present in Sri Lanka hence, this makes threshers the most threatened family of sharks in our waters. There is a misconception that because of the ban on fishing for threshers, which became effective
in October 2015, these sharks have increased in numbers in Sri Lankan waters in the three years that have passed. There are even suggestions that the legislation should be annulled or amended to permit fishing for threshers. Nevertheless, no acceptable evidence has been presented to support the belief that thresher populations have increased. Table 1 clearly shows that given the small litter sizes, long period of gestation and the extended time to reach maturity the claim is specious. Any claim that thresher sharks have increased in numbers should be supported by scientifically acceptable evidence which, as already noted, is not the case. It is my hope that the authorities will take cognizance of the facts given here and will not permit the existing fisheries legislation to be weakened or annulled on the basis of unsubstantiated assertions. Note 2. A new species. The Eastern Dwarf False Catshark Planonasus indicus from Sri Lanka. A shark caught off Trincomalee in 2017 was identified from a photograph as a Dwarf False Catshark Planonasus parini (Ebert et al. 2016 [2017]). However, on a visit to Sri Lanka in April 2018 David Ebert obtained another specimen (also caught off Trincomalee) which resembled the shark photographed earlier. However,
Table 1. Breeding data for Thresher Sharks Average Litter Size
Gestation Period
Time of Maturity Males
Time of Maturity Females
Common Thresher
4
9 months
3 – 7 years
3 – 9 years
Pelagic Thresher
2
9 months
7 – 8 years
8 – 9 years
Bigeye Thresher
2–4
9 months
9 – 10 years
12 – 14 years
Species
18
when the new specimen was examined in detail its features were found to differ from the diagnostic characteristics of P. parini as follows. Oral papillae were absent, lack of a distinct white mark on the free rear tip of the first dorsal fin, more tooth rows in lower jaw, shorter labial furrows, higher and more angular dorsal fins, larger anal fin, longer spiracles etc. Hence the shark was considered to be a new species and named Planonasus indicus aka the Eastern Dwarf False Catshark (Ebert et al. 2018). It is clear therefore that the shark photographed in 2017 also belongs to this species. The Eastern Dwarf False Catshark occurs on the upper continental slope from 200 – 1,000 m. The shark was caught by the Sri Lankan Gulper Shark (Centrophorus sp.) fishery.
PLJUDWLRQ WHUQV IO\ IDVW DQG WRR KLJK WR EH VHHQ´ (Bourne 2015). While it was known that the migrating terns originated from areas in the Arabian Sea (Ali & Ripley, 1983) their wintering range remained a mystery.
Plate 3. Bridled Tern. Image © Premasiri Mapalagama
Bourne’s paper (2015) clarifies that the terns winter “Eastwards” passing the west and southwest coasts of Sri Lanka and then eastwards through the Malacca Strait off Singapore. I suspect therefore that the birds probably winter in the Java and Flores seas and adjacent areas and, it is hoped, that studies from the region will confirm this. It should be noted however that evidence also indicates a small number of migrants could possibly winter in Sri Lanka’s deeper coastal waters (De Silva, 2017).
Plate 2. David Ebert and holotype of the Eastern Dwarf False Catshark. Image courtesy Marsha Englebrecht.
Note 3. Radar detects the return migration of Bridled Terns (Onychoprion anaethetus). This is a sequel to my recent publication on the annual mass migration of Bridled Terns off Sri Lanka (De Silva, 2017). My study, while outlining basic aspects of the migration (De Silva 1987, 2003, 2011, 2017), was unable to address some facets of the phenomenon which remained enigmatic. Among these was the question of a return migration of the terns to their breeding range. Commenting on this I stated: ³5HJXODUREVHUYDWLRQVZHUHFDUULHGRXWRYHUDSHULRG of eighteen months in 1982 and 1983 in an attempt to ascertain whether a return migration (i.e. one proceeding northwards) took place. No evidence of such a movement was detected and Bridled Terns were virtually absent off Colombo outside the migratory SHULRGVLQGLFDWHGLQ7DEOH´ (De Silva, 1987). The mystery was explained when Dr. W.R.P. Bourne, a pioneer seabird researcher, commented: ³:KLOHWKH%ULGOHG7HUQVDUHRQO\DSSDUHQWO\VHHQRQ their eastbound autumnal migration it has been found with radar that on their return
Plate 4. Bridled Terns in migration. Image © Jagath Gunawardana
Acknowledgements The painting of a Bigeye Thresher Shark by Jayantha Jinasena (Plate 1) is from my book The Sharks of Sri Lanka, it is published here courtesy of the Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka (FOGSL). I thank Marsha Englebrecht for her image of David Ebert with the holotype of P. indicus (Plate 2). I am grateful to Premasiri Mapalagama for his excellent image of a Bridled Tern in flight (Plate 3). Last but not least, I thank Jagath Gunawardana who produced an illustration of Bridled Terns in migration specifically for this paper (Plate 4). 19
References
Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka (FOGSL).
Anon. (2015). Shark Fisheries Management Regulations. 2015. Gazette of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (Extraordinary) Monday October 26th 2015
De Silva, R.I. (2017). Sri Lankan seabirds. Loris 28(1 & 2): 28-29.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Delhi. Oxford University Press. Bourne, W.R.P. (2015). Movement of Bridled Terns and petrels with the Monsoons. Sea Swallow 64:107. De Silva, R. I. (1987) Observations on the mass migration of Bridled Terns Sterna anaethetus off the coast of Colombo. Ibis 129: 88-92. De Silva, R. I. (2003). The Mass migration of Bridled Terns (Sterna anaethetus) off the coast of Sri Lanka 1981– 1994. Loris 23(3 & 4): 25-31. De Silva, R. I. (2011). Observing oceanic birds in Sri Lanka. Indian Birds 7(3): 58-62. De Silva, R. I. (2015). The Sharks of Sri Lanka. Colombo.
De Silva, R. I. (2018). Catch and release fishing for protected Thresher Sharks (Alopias sp.). Loris 28(3) 35-36. Ebert, D.M., De Silva, R.I. and Goonewardena, M.L. (2016 [2017]). First record of a Dwarf False Catshark Planonasus parini (Carcharhiniformes: Pseudotriakidae) from Sri Lanka. Loris 27(5 and 6) 63-64. [Note: Loris for 2016 was actually published in 2017]. Ebert, D. M., Akilesh. K. V. and Weigman, S. (2018). Planonasus indicus sp. nov. A new species of pygmy false catshark (Chondrichthyes: Carcharhiniformes: Pseudotriakidae), with a revised diagnosis of the genus and a key to the family. Marine Biodiversity 1-29. Ebert, D. A., S. Fowler, L. J. V. Compagno and M. Dando. (2013). Sharks of the World. A fully illustrated guide. Plymouth. Wild Nature Press.
MEMBERS GATHERING 2018 The Wildlife & Nature Protection Society’s Members’ Gathering, held on the 12th of October 2018 at the Women’s International Hall, as with the previous, proved to be another tremendous success. It was a fun-filled evening with much chatter, laughter and companionship as members of all ages and backgrounds came together to enjoy a night of great food, games and good fun.
were split into teams, according to their tables, and what followed was both competitive and entertaining. Questions ranged from “Why flamingos are pink”? to “How many knees has a spider”?, the latter of which really had everyone counting!
The highlight of the night was the Wildlife Quiz that was both entertaining and informative. The Members
Trumpet calls already echo around the waterholes in anticipation of the next one!
20
One lucky member won an overnight stay at a WNPS holiday bungalow on the dinner ticket raffle that took place.
BIODIVERSITY: It is everywhere! Ranjith Hulugalle A Personal Odyssey In 2004, I returned to live in Sri Lanka having lived overseas for 33 years, and was determined, personal resources and time permitting, to base myself in a rural setting in Minneriya in the Polonnaruwa District, and visit as much of the area as possible, essentially with no particular agenda. A Purana Gama, one that existed before colonialization, called Ratmale is where I built a small home, with the verandah overlooking the forest. It is by a village tank, next to the village temple. Over the past 60 years, locals eschewed living in their homes near the tank. These were then either reclaimed by the forest, or made way for newer constructions, by the main road a kilometer away, which is where the village is now. There is, however, a daily ritual of villagers coming to the tank, through my property, for their evening bath, when they also wash their clothes. To put it in context, it is actually wedged between the Kaudulla and Minneriya National Parks, but most of the land around it belongs to the Forest Department. The tank hosts at the farther end from the village. Recently, the village has been fenced in though elephants often get in from access points that are not closed at night due to some people carelessly not shutting these entrances after them. Original Intent A friend introduced me to this area, with its profusion of tanks, some in use and others abandoned. I likened it to the State of Minnesota, the land of a thousand lakes. This sealed my decision to move here. I wanted to visit a new tank or two each weekend.
One merely had to ask the locals if there was one close by and they would point in some direction. This began my fascination which has led me to beautiful locations, where people had built little homes by the lakeside. I was drawn to the bird life that gathered in these water bodies. I learned that all rivers and streams have reservations which are State Land, but which the nearest farmer could use. They were, however, not permitted to cut any trees there, or build any structures. In my experience, many people seem to violate these rules, often having an electricity supply given to them in these encroachments, with politicians overriding objections and granting them occupancy! An amazing biodiversity I acquired a ‘bird book’ to learn about the avian life in these areas. It is important to note that when there is a body of water, all sorts of life are attracted to them. Not just the familiar Water Monitor, but Otters, Sri Lanka Flapshell and Black Turtles, water snakes, swamp hens, Pheasant-tailed Jacanas, kingfishers, and the raptors that wait for their pick, and jungle cats that prowl at night, and parrots, the farmers nemesis, as well as numerous species of owl, all use these waters. Frankly, I had no time to spend going to National Parks. Farming, taking care of one’s land, and a foray to a local tank, was my only relaxation. I used to take a local person who wanted a change of scenery with me, and they, too, would suddenly realize that I was actually appreciating the biodiversity which they took for granted, but had never questioned or looked deeper into. 21
A new purpose of conservation and education It was only later, when I had to abandon my agricultural pursuits due to a debilitating traffic accident, and I returned to live on a farm near Colombo that I was able to attend the WNPS lectures and get involved with their activities. My mother had been a Life Member, so I have read many a Loris journal in the past, but an interest in Conservation per se only dawned on me at this juncture. Initially I had to restrict my forays back to Polonnaruwa, but my fascination with the wild continued. Most of my travelling was not to see wildlife, but to visit the farmers I got to know with my work. They were not as concerned as I about the biodiversity around them, but more on their livelihood. This has led me to believe that we have a real need to educate local people about the incredible biodiversity they live with every day. Setting traps for animals is quite common in the rural areas and much needs to be done on awareness. We MUST remember that what we consider precious, are vermin to farmers, as they destroy their crops. Peafowl are the most destructive as they literally gobble up sheaves of grain. They are followed by Parrots, Monkeys and Giant Squirrels. Unless one is able to placate these farmers and show them ways of managing this menace, there is no point in merely telling them not to harm these creatures. Suffice to 22
say, it is not easy to explain to farmers to desist from killing them as their livelihood is directly affected, and statistics today show that 25% of the crops in Sri Lanka are lost to pests. I recall an incident when the authorities at the neighboring Kaudulla Park had no means of transport, and I was asked to drive some Park Rangers to the Medirigiriya Police Station, as they were needed to verify that what was said to be chicken was, in fact, Ibis, killed for its flesh, so they could prosecute the offenders. There is a delicate balance in a rural village and most villages have a family, or at least one member of one, who sets traps and catches animals for sale as meat. All the people in the village know who he is as that has been their traditional means of livelihood, and what they know. What has happened lately, if one takes Habarana as an example, is that the demand for game meat has escalated, with local, Sri Lankan tourists being the main buyers. Foreigners are more aware of the importance of nature and come to Sri Lanka to enjoy what the Country offers. The locals seek forbidden fruit! We need to devise effective campaigns to counteract this demand. I realize that there is a crying need to rehabilitate tanks, for sources of water for irrigation that permit farmers to work their land at least twice a year, in order to keep their head above water with the small land they
have inherited. I understand that the Government has also made this clear. This has mixed outcomes for biodiversity, however. Many areas that have lain uncultivated will now be cleaned up and cleared. More natural habitat will disappear. The biggest challenge is to come up with a rationale for farmers with possible solutions for the protection of biodiversity, without affecting their livelihood; not to destroy but to live and let live. Environmental destruction and its reversal I have noticed destruction of forests, with no resulting cultivation, where the lease was taken of Mahaweli land just to cut the trees, thus leaving the land cleared, and left fallow. Biodiversity has been destroyed for the sake of short term gain, with no real long term benefit. This desecration has not improved farmers’ livelihoods. In addition, most land demarcation for projects are with political patronage. The latest is the allocation of land bordering protected areas for agriculture. Why, when there is so much land, even in Polonnaruwa, that is not cultivated? Most of this is because farmers are too poor to cultivate, or they are reluctant to allow others to, due to the fear of losing their title. This is a serious issue that must be addressed immediately to allow those who wish to cultivate to do so, WITHOUT the title holder losing his rights. In this way those who say they require land for
mega agricultural projects, but don’t have access to them, can lease land from available, cleared land rather than being given State Land that should, in reality, add to the forest cover that is so rapidly disappearing. So what is the objective? The objective is to get the rural population, living in highly biodiversity rich regions, to appreciate the myriad of species they share the land with. As an example, I live in Ratmale which, in the past, was a center of the weaving industry, using rush reed and cane. None of the skills have been passed down to the present generation, and the raw material that used to be freely available is no longer accessible. Though cane trees are protected, there is no desire by the people to preserve them, whereas if their craft had value today, then they would ensure that the cane is harvested carefully and protected to ensure a permanent supply for the craft to flourish. Recently, I wanted to find real cane to weave my chairs and was told it is no longer available and the local people who can still weave are using imported plastic varieties instead! In that sense, banning the cutting of cane has had a negative effect on its preservation, as there is no reason for it. The old skills are not in demand and so they do not look at those plants as of economic benefit. They are cut down as a nuisance, as cane has thorns and can be dangerous. 23
What should we do? There is no debate that we live on an island that may, comparative to land mass, be the most biodiversity rich place on the face of the Earth, with species yet to be discovered.
Education in schools Education is now standard throughout the island. There is no reason for rural children to learn local traditions, and even medicines for minor ailments are no longer collected. Children used to recognize bird sounds and know their animals. Now they have no appreciation of them, being immersed in their school work and tuition. Parents bemoan this, but are complicit in NOT passing traditions down to the succeeding generations. I am painfully aware of the fast disappearing rural knowledge base amongst the youth, who don’t seem to want to live there and instead have other aspirations. This results in uncultivated waste land, on marginal agricultural land, that should and could be regenerated; islands of biodiversity richness.
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We cannot just rely on our Protected Areas to preserve our diverse habitats, we have to protect everyplace we can, in ways we understand. There is a simple rationale that if we lose it there is NO turning back, so we need to be aware of the repercussions of our actions before we undertake any more schemes that reduce forest cover, or involve clearing of land. This can only be achieved by educating rural populations who do not have access to publications in English about each type of living organism. They range from Lichens, to Dragonflies, or Moths to Amphibians, or Mammals from the smallest to the largest on earth, and birds that are found even in urban gardens. It would be advisable to concentrate our energies in getting the message across to the areas that are under severe threat from destruction. It is still not too late to stop the destruction and, hopefully, reverse some of the damage that has already been done to our environment.
Black-tailed Godwits © Hasitha Perera
2018 Waterbird Census in Sri Lanka U. Sirivardana, Ceylon Bird Club
Mannar Region
Puttalam-Chilaw Region
Southern Coastal Region
South West Coast+ Vicinity
South-East Inland
Kumana Region
Batticaloa Region
Trincomalee Coastal Region
Rest of Island
Species
2013-2017 report which appears in the last issue of Loris. Please see that article for more information on sites and conservation issues mentioned below.
Jaffna Region
Total Countrywide
Species
Waterbird Census Sri Lanka 2018
In 2018 the annual waterbird census in Sri Lanka was conducted as usual in the first two weeks of February by the Ceylon Bird Club (CBC) for the 35th year. A general description of the census is found in the
65
92
53
69
34
26
–
59
–
48
Grebe
1
439
43
11
2
9
3
–
–
29
–
342
Pelican
1
529
116
290
2
93
2
2
–
23
–
1
Cormorants, Darter
4
5,711
1,255
2,158
113
854
60
97
–
406
–
768
Herons
12
10,601
490
4,693
423
2,156
392
178
–
306
–
1,963
Storks
3
3,855
148
3,136
4
327
31
11
–
58
–
140
Ibises, Spoonbill
3
3,602
470
2,144
43
351
110
18
–
428
–
38
Flamingo
1
1,690
1,215
475
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ducks
8
48,354
21,528
22,112
117
1,279
45
4
–
3,225
–
44
Rails, Coots
5
1,072
134
194
7
400
73
28
–
189
–
47
Jacana
1
502
30
49
–
102
17
77
–
30
–
197
Shorebirds
40
109,705
16,052
77,922
899
12,927
28
25
–
1,740
–
112
Gulls, Terns
13
45,153
6,398
23,974
10,518
2,095
5
16
–
1,551
–
596
Raptors
5
252
30
85
10
37
4
5
–
63
–
18
Kingfishers
4
294
15
11
14
127
16
18
–
75
–
18
Total
101
231,759
47,924
137,254
12,152
20,757
786
479
–
8,123
–
4,284
Total in Past 5 Years: 2017 - 133,970 — 2016 - 412,720 — 2015 - 378,369 — 2014 - 320,481 — 2013 - 162,166.
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The CBC is expanding the census, with also a new programme for interim periods; and count results and mapping are being digitized to conform to current practice at Wetlands International, who co-ordinate the census globally. In 2018 several sites in the Eastern Province were included after many years, and there was better coverage within the Mannar Region. Puttalam-Chilaw Region, censussed by Deepal Warakagoda, Senaka Abeyratne and Sankha Randenikumara. At the Puttalam Salterns it was observed that the windmills, to generate electricity, on the farther shore of the lagoon were clearly affecting birds in flight, obstructing their paths, and possibly causing fatalities. In each of the 2015 and 2016 censuses when 195-200,000 gulls and terns and 20-50,000 shorebirds arrived to roost here different wind patterns may have prevailed. At Annaiwilundawa Sanctuary the tanks were dry. At Udappuwa 1655 Gull-billed Terns were recorded. Mannar Region: Chandima Kahandawala, Uditha Hettige, U. Sirivardana, separately Samapth Seneviratne. Adam’s Bridge National Park yielded 22736 waterbirds, including 10148 migrant Heuglin’s Gulls. A count of 10947 at Giant’s Tank included 2146 Openbill storks. The migrant Glossy Ibis, once rare, was widespread, with 42 recorded at this site and 180 at Vankalai Sanctuary. At Mulankavil Tank were 1054 White (Black-headed) Ibis. We might mention here that the monthly Ceylon Bird Club Notes records c.500,000 shorebirds at Vankalai Sanctuary 18 days before the census. Vidattaltivu Lagoon, where a million shorebirds were recorded in the 2010 census, showed the highest site count countrywide with 24650 waterbirds. Within the Veditalativu Nature Reserve were also 22438 at Erukkilampiddi, 9942 at Kora Kulam, and 8745 waterbirds at a site visited for a special reason. Here more than 1000 ha. of the c.6000 ha. of the inland area of the Nature Reserve, an integral part of one of the richest waterbird areas in the world, is proposed by the National Authority NAQDA to be de-gazetted for an aquaculture farm! The Spot-billed Duck which was previously a rare migrant was discovered at Mannar in the 2003 census to be breeding in Sri Lanka. For a decade since then it was regularly found near the original site. In the present census the species was seen only once in 26
Sanderlings © Thushara Senanayake
the region, four birds at a site not disturbed by the wave of legal and illegal development here proceeding blatantly even within protected areas. Jaffna Region: Kiran Kumaranayagam, Chandima Kahandawala and Thushara Senanayake. The Spot-billed Duck and Glossy Ibis are now widespread in this region. At Punkudutivu Lagoon 11764 waterbirds were recorded including 9001 ducks and 1200 Greater Flamingo. At the Karaitivu (Karainagar) Causeway the count reached 11000 shorebirds, 4000 gulls and terns, and 2750 ducks, but nearly all were too far to identify to species, with their habitable boundaries moved back farther, and deeper, by ‘ja kotu’. Sanderlings © Thushara Senanayake
Spot-billed Ducks © Thushara Senanayake
Glossy Ibis © Dr. Pathmanath Samaraweera
Southern Coastal Region: Sarath Seneviratne, Hemantha Seneviratne and Hasitha Perera. Water levels were rather high in general. In Bundala National Park 64 species were recorded including 19 Ruff. At Kalametiya-Lunama Sanctuary over 6000 migrant Black-tailed Godwit were observed. Illicit collection of ‘sippi’ (mollusc shells) here has begun again. Here too the spread of Prosopis julilfora is causing harm to other flora and fauna including waterbirds. Batticaloa Region*: Ravi Darshana. At Walatawewa near Ampara 40 species including 43 Indian StoneCurlew (Thick-knee) were recorded, 39 Pintail Snipe across the six sites visited, a Temminck’s Stint at Miyankulam near Kalkuda, four Glossy Ibis at Kokkadicholai, and four Sanderling at Akkaraipattu. *Region names are for census purposes and do not coincide with the Districts. South-West Coast and Vicinity: Tara Wikramanayake and Srinath Seneviratna, in the Colombo inland area. At the Talawatugoda wetlands in and near Diyasaru Uyana 27 species of waterbirds were recorded and at Talangama Lake 26 species during the few hours of census. South-East Inland, and Rest of Island. As in many years previously, Bennie Abeyratne censussed the Tissamaharama Area, and Anura Ratnayake the Kandy Area. At Kandy Lake three Great Cormorants, 423 Indian Cormorants (Shag), 102 Little Cormorants, 102 Indian Pond Herons and 612 Cattle Egrets were recorded.
Western Reef Heron with Little Egrets © Hasitha Perera
The non-CBC members who participatied in the census were: Akila Abeyratne, Hasitha Katugaha, Chandra Liyanage, Ram Nair, Iroshan Rupasinghe, Vasanta Seneviratna, and Kumari Wickremeratne. 27
Spectrogram of a typical elephant call. Note the low frequency components
ENDEAVOURS OF A FAR-OFF VILLAGE: Part 2 Lalith Seneviratne [email protected] The developing partnership between the Pokunutenna village and Colombo lead to another pioneering endeavour. Like most animals, elephants rely on a repertoire of techniques to communicate among themselves. These range from the tactile and chemical to the visual and auditory. These very same methods can, in theory, be used to detect the presence of elephants. Of them, auditory signals are the most attractive form. Sound waves travel far and can be heard even when there is no direct visual observation. Thus, remote detection is possible. Even lone elephants make noises. Most importantly, it is the easiest form of signal to acquire and analyse electronically. Thus, identification of elephant vocalisations can be a promising way to detect the presence of elephants. For many years, it has been known that elephants vocalise in the infrasonic range of frequencies (5 to 250 hertz). This is made possible by their large bodies. For analysing calls, the best method is the use of spectrograms. A spectrogram is a plot of frequency versus time. Intensity at each point is displayed as a shade of grey (or as a colour if available). These spectrograms clearly show the low frequency components of elephant rumbles.
The first of its kind The first phase of the project concentrated on developing a system to record elephant vocalisations. For an in-depth study, it was necessary to obtain a large collection of call samples. There were several hurdles to overcome. As mentioned earlier, elephant calls fall in the infrasonic range. Ordinary microphones and recording devices do not respond to these stimuli. Therefore, a system had to be designed to cater to these requirements. Then, there was the problem of unpredictable input sound levels. A fixed-gain amplifier was not suitable. Therefore, an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) was designed. It increases the amplification 28
for weak signals, while reducing gain for stronger signals. Above all, the system had to be immune from excessive noise, which would corrupt the recorded signals. The resulting design represented the first generation, globally developed, solid-state electronic system. The signals gathered from this device were stored in a digital format on a personal computer. The interface software included a visualisation, which converted the incoming signals into a spectrogram in real time, so that calls could be easily identified while recording was in progress. Observation of calls thus recorded indicated two facts. They all had a low frequency component, and all look like a set of parallel lines. Although different modulations of rumbles produce a large vocabulary for elephants, for an electronic system they all look very similar. It was found that all rumbles looked similar, whether made by the same elephant at different times or made by different elephants. This suggested a strong possibility of automatic detection. Thus, in Pokunutenna, the first even recordings and analysis of Asian Elephant infrasound calls were made! Such experiments had already taking place with African elephants, using the then available analogue commercial recorders, not purpose built ones as in this case. It was mentioned that all elephant calls look similar. There are variations in the calls, but they are small in number. It is analogous to small vocabulary speech. Therefore, basic speech recognition systems could be used to identify elephant calls, and thereby recognise the presence of elephants. This lead to the project developing a prototype of the automated recognition software. The recognition algorithm employed compared and matched incoming calls with a set of stored reference calls. If there was a reasonably good match, the signal was identified as an elephant call. To compare and match test signals with references, a technique known as Dynamic Time Warping was
used. This was a tool used at that time in speech recognition when small vocabularies were used. By defining certain identified specific constrains, into the algorithm, a very reliable detecting method was developed. The endeavour came to the stage of prototyping of both hardware and software systems. Recognition was successfully simulated on a personal computer. Initial field trials were done in Pokunutenna with promising results. Of course the premise in this system is that elephants vocalise when raiding crops. This remains to be verified. Indeed, without an automated detection system, it is not possible to study this phenomenon. This automated system has other uses besides the one for which it was originally intended. It can be used to monitor elephant migrations. Naturally, there will be a lot of vocalisation when elephants are around. If one were to scatter detectors across a given area, they will mark hits when elephants are around. Recording and studying detections made by each unit can provide a good indication of elephant presence and migration patterns. Just like the solid-state recoding system developed, as far as it is known, this was the first solid-state software driven automated elephant call detection system ever developed for any species of elephant. In the hope of it continuing, the work produced was freely shared with one of the leading universities in Sri Lanka and with one of the leading zoos in Europe. There ended a beautiful, first of its kind experiment with a village and a city cooperating together to advance science. It is worth mentioning an interesting incident that happened when the prototype was first tested in Pokunutenna. It was fixed on a tree near one of the entry points of elephants into the village, during the fallow period of cultivation when the tripwire system was disabled allowing elephants to feed on the leftover growth. Late into the night two bulls, one a tusker and the other a normal bull stealthily approached the fields. No rumbles were detected by the system. Then, the two separated. The tusker remained at the edge of the fields while the normal bull advanced silently into the fields and surveyed the surroundings. Suddenly the system detected a rumble not audible to the ear. The tusker immediately started moving forward and stepped into the fields. Together they then started to forage. A clear example of a normal bull and a tusked bull working in tandem with the former mitigating the risk to the latter by communication. One particularly dry year, in the afternoons, herd after herd would come to drink at the Pokunutenna tank. It was remarkable to note how the herds would communicate so that they could synchronise their movements into the water, without impeding on each other. Once a heard finished drinking and entered the
Block Diagram of the Infrasound Detection System.
Field testing of the Infrasound Detection System prototype within a watch-hut.
forest, the next herd would come out, after an interval, from another direction. This kept on until a few herds came, the number of elephants in total being over one hundred. Their near perfect movement was coordinated by communication over distances.
Vital links The Dahaiyagala Corridor, originating on the borders of Pokunutenna village, links the Uda Walawe National Park with the Bogahapattiya Forest Reserve, considered to be the last remaining largely undisturbed talawa (savannah) and intermediate zone forest in the southern part of Sri Lanka. It allows a myriad of animals including elephants a migration path that enriches their habitat by creating an ‘umbilical cord’ linking the National Park, which is by an large a plain, with the Forest Reserve and its undulating hills; a diverse ecosystem. Realising its importance, in 2002, the majority of the villagers of Pokunutenna supported Dahaiyagala being declared a sanctuary with an extent of nearly 2, 700 hectares. Despite the importance of Bogahapattiya, with its high biodiversity including rare species of flora, such as the Uva Mandoran tree (Hopea cordifolia) endemic only 29
Hardware of the Infrasound Detection System.
isolated the National Park from the Bogapapattiya forest. When elephants lose their home range they, usually, cannot and do not adapt and will gradually die off. Human-elephant conflict would have intensified due the restriction of movement of, particularly, bull elephants. There was pandemonium for a while but due to the timely intervention of conservationists led by the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court upheld its sanctuary status. The Department of Wildlife Conservation undertook to erect an electric fence to demarcate it, while the local government authorities undertook to relocate encroachers within it and find them alternative lands.
Overcoming dependency
Software module of the Infrasound Detection System.
to the Uva area, attempts to elevate its status from a proposed forest reserve to a sanctuary have been to no avail. Bogahapattiya is also special because its bull elephants, including many tuskers, cross over to the National Park through the Dahaiyagala Sanctuary in the dry months, when they are in musth, to find mates amongst the numerous herds in the Park. It is also a lure for elephants everywhere, because salt minerals essential for their health are found there in salt licks scattered over a small area. It functions as a refuge for elephants and other animals seeking shelter from the waterlogged plains of the National Park, during periods of heavy rainfall. Conversely the animals of Bogahapattiya migrate to the plains during the dry months to seek water in the tanks and the trickling rivers and streams inside the Park, including Pokunutenna Tank. The Sloth Bear has not been sighted in the Pokunutenna area and the National Park for a few decades now, but there is hope that there can be natural repopulation through migration from Bogahapattiya. Meanwhile, it is also a watershed for the Walawe Ganga1, Weli Oya2 and Mau Ara3. A few years after the conservation of the Dahaiyagala area, attempts were made by a group of villagers, instigated, as usual, by unscrupulous politicians, to have its sanctuary status withdrawn. They were agitating for the lands to be alienated and distributed among the farmers. This would have 1 2 3
30
River Major stream Stream
The erection of the electric fence around the National Park, to a great extent, took away the responsibility of the Pokunutenna villagers of guarding themselves from elephant intrusions using innovations like the tripwire system. Similar to centralised irrigation management, it brought with it, its own complications, and re-elevated the culture of dependency of the people. For a while people were satisfied. Elephants soon found ways to overcome the barrier and raid crops in the night. Each section of an electric fence powered by an energizer stretches for a good few kilometres. This is a long thin line when it comes to maintenance and ensuring that its potency is retained throughout. Daily maintenance along its entire length, is essential, to ensure that wires are intact, supporting posts are erect, and no vegetation short-circuits the wires to earth. Failings in maintenance, combined with elephant ingenuity, meant that the more persevering crop raiders would breakthrough frequently. They would push a small tree onto the fence and shortcircuit it, or a few of them would come charging in a file so that they together bear the shock and mitigate it, such were some of their inventiveness. In some cases those officers responsible for maintenance themselves left open breaches inside the forest, in places inaccessible to their supervisors, so that the elephants could get through and save them the trouble of patrolling the length to find breaches and repair them. Such was the sorry state of affairs within the public services as paid for by the people! Only prompt and repeated corrective action keeps the likelihood of breaches by elephants in check. Faced with the ineffectiveness of the electric fence, the collective thinking of the villagers returned. A few years earlier, as an extension of the research into protection systems, a prototype of an inexpensive private electric fence was made. This device supported a shorter section of length enough to protect an individual’s field, was affordable to an individual farmer, was rugged and reliable, maintained its potency due to its shorter length and could be powered from the
mains electricity unlike the larger public systems which required solar power and batteries. But this design was not promoted freely because of the question of the legality of such a privately owned system, due to the individual liability it carries; viz. risk of injury due to an unexpected electric shock or as a result of being thrown due to its potency. Nevertheless, on the request of small entrepreneurs from different area of the country, the concept was shared with them. Independently, too, other small entrepreneurs were developing their own private electric fencing systems. Unlike previously, where only an occasional border village like Pokunutenna had electricity with its off-grid system, now with the extension of the national grid, most border villages had grid-electricity to power their own private electric fencing. The better of the entrepreneurs survived and they developed the market. Pokunutenna, in the process, became one of the first villages to adopt private electric fencing where each family would protect their home garden, chena4 cultivation, and the paddy field, thus taking back the ownership of protection to themselves. With experience and competition, these private fencing systems became more rugged, reliable, and affordable. Today, there are a few committed entrepreneurs, spread across the country, making a living by manufacturing such systems. Further, unlike the main public electric fencing, these have the additional feature of an alarm on any intrusion or short-circuit. Thus, originated the concept of what can be termed the second line of defence, borrowing military terminology. Today, in Pokunutenna, one can even see fields of coconut palms, a scene unimaginable earlier. This is a lasting tribute to the perseverance of the villagers.
Need for acceptance Within a few years almost all the villages surrounding Pokunutenna embraced private electric fencing, as well as a good many others across the country. Nonetheless, due to a lack of proper standards and regulations, such fencing will continue to operate within the grey areas of the law, which is to the utter shame of the authorities. This prevents the method being accepted nationally and promoted by the wildlife authorities. No doubt vested interests play a part in this unfortunate situation. Ultimately, if an island-wide network of private electric fencing can be in place, funded and owned by individual farmers, the enormously capital and operating cost intensive public fencing systems, with questionable efficacy, can be phased out. The villager will, once again, take charge of the situation instead of having to rely on sympathy, and being in the headlines of newspapers as he has since the day of Independence decades ago. Independent 4
Slash & burn
of what, one may ask? Elephants can once again roam and regenerate their stock without treading on man. Fallow fields can be a source of good food for them and their presence in that season a potential source of revenue for the villager through eco-tourism. As Farmer Ariyaratna relates: ³(DUO\ RQH PRUQLQJ DQ HOHSKDQW KDG EURNHQ WKURXJK the public electric fence at a spot along the tank bund. It had walked along the bund and then along Kumbuk Ara and attempted to break through the private fence protecting my four acres of paddy. The alarm in my house sounded with the red light blinking in the energizer unit. As usual, I was confident that the elephant would not dare to go through as the shock would be too much for it to bear, and went back to sleep again. At dawn I walked to the spot. I saw the struggle the elephant had made while being in the stream attempting to break through, from the marks it had left in the mud. The footprints also indicated the haste with which it had retreated when the force of the electric shock hit him. The value of the second line of defence in our case is beyond measure. I must though admit in these few years of private fencing there was one single incident where the elephant won. This probably is the most ingenious elephant I have come across in my life. Once, the public fence was in disrepair. This elephant broke a length of wire off it and walked over half a kilometre to where the private fence protecting my mango plantation is. It threw the wire across the private fence, accurate enough for it to get entangled in it and then for the other end to short-circuit to ground, completely incapacitating the effectiveness of the fence. Thus it got through and feasted on the PDQJRHV0RVWDPD]LQJLQWXLWLRQRIWKHHOHSKDQW´ D. J. G. Hennessy in his classic “Green Aisles, The Story of the Jungles of Ceylon” in which he describes the life and times of the Dry Zone in the 1930s had this to say: ³,Q WKH WLPH RI WKH 6LQKDOHVH NLQJV WKH ODQG ZDV a land of plenty. Why, then, today, does the loss of even a portion of one crop mean empty granaries and starving people? The answer is not difficult to find ă UHOLDQFH RQ WKH VKRUWVLJKWHG EHQHYROHQFH RI WKH British Government. Today the villager knows that, if he starves, the Government will, in the end, see that he is given some sort of relief, and so he has no fear of the consequences when the bad time is on him; he knows that starving people must be succoured. He knew this even in the time of his own kings; but he also realised that, after the crisis was over, he would be called to account and punished for bringing himself DQGKLVIDPLO\WRDVWDWHRIVWDUYDWLRQ´ This state of affairs goes on and on, only the forms of relief may have changed, even after the Masters have been replaced. 31
MANNAR UNBOUND: A Journey through History and Nature Jayaratne, Thilak; Gallangoda, Janaka; Hapuarachchi, Nadika; Fernando, Tamara. Published by Chaya Publishers, December 2018 - 384 pages. ISBN: 978-955-4674-01-1 Reviewed by Rohan Wijesinha For many, and for numerous reasons, Mannar is just a name of a little island off the North West Coast of Sri Lanka, just north of the Wilpattu National Park, and accessed by a bridge from the mainland. Yet for those who knew of its history, and frequented its shores, often perilously in the times of war, it is a magical place of legend from an era that pre-dated the written records we have access to today; over 3, 000 years ago. In addition, for those who prefer history of the more natural kind, the island, its adjoining islets and sand bars, and the marine tracts in between, host a profusion of wild creatures whose number can overwhelm, especially during the migratory season. Their variety ranges from ponies to jungle cats to reptiles and things smaller. Its seas, especially in the Adam’s Bridge Marine National Park, are home to a myriad species of life, from the highly endangered dugong to dolphins to shoals of brightly coloured fish, molluscs and arthropods and, most importantly, reefs of coral that are the foundation of most of life in the ocean, and of its long ago origins on land. And in the air… Birds are the great feature of Mannar and its surrounds, as they flock to that region in their multitude, thousands of pelagic species seeking temporary nesting on the sand bars, and others finding seasonal refuge and food on the land. Add to this rich mix of species those that already make 32
the island and the adjacent mainland their permanent homes, and Mannar is truly an ornithologist’s dream. The pages of this book are full of them; perfectly composed portraits, from diminutive songbirds to the tall Black-necked Stork, not forgetting the owls and eagles that predate on the weak and unwary. This, however, is more than just a coffee table book filled with pretty pictures of Nature. It is also a comprehensively researched record of an ancient region and of how humans have added to the sculpture of its present being. The fabled Adam’s Bridge, during the periodic ice ages, formed a land bridge between India and Sri Lanka and along which there was an interchange of ancient peoples and their cultures. Later, as recorded in the ancient texts of the Greeks and the Romans, Sri Lanka’s strategic position, as a teardrop of India, meant that it attracted trade and traders. For it had much to give in exchange – spices, gemstones and elephants. This burgeoning commercial industry led to the establishment of permanent centres of trade all along this coastline, and with it settlers from many parts of the World who have contributed to the ethnic milieu of the peoples who now live here. Even the European Colonists added to this mixture, the Portuguese with intent, as that was an integral part of their colonising strategies, and the others with discrete indiscretions! It then all collapsed. The main contribution to this disaster was the uncontrolled fishing for pearls. The
marine sand banks of Mannar were festooned with oysters and the Europeans greatly coveted them. Armies of ‘Pearl Fishers’ harvested this precious crop, during the season, and added to the rich bounty of natural products that found their way from Ceylon to Europe. The British, in particular, prized this source of revenue and the first Governor of Ceylon, Frederick North, even built a lavish villa, the ‘Doric’, close to the fishing banks and hosted great banquets and balls in its colonnaded halls and, no doubt, in its surrounding gardens, as a boast to the commercial success of the place. The pearl banks, however, could not sustain this demand for long, and in a matter of a decade or two its productivity began to wane. Soon there were not enough oysters to sustain the industry and it finally disappeared altogether. The ‘Doric’ now stands a decrepit skeleton of the glory of what it must once have been, just as the pearl banks, devoid of the oysters and other crustaceans that held its foundations together against the currents of the ocean, became desolate submarine wastes to eventually dissipate into nothing. Mannar still has a varied biodiversity thanks to the War. No development was possible in these areas and the fauna and flora of the land and the oceans remained largely intact. That is no longer the case and there is now a huge interest in this area for eco-tourism and industry. Sri Lanka needs development, desperately, BUT PLANNED DEVELOPMENT. Any such enterprise should have studies done on the effect of
such development on the fauna and flora of the area, and written into the plans must be effective methods for mitigating against any damage or loss to them. Let us learn from the pearl banks. If they disappear, we will suffer. There is also a creeping cancer that is infecting the seas and sandbars of Mannar and its surrounds, a disease with origins elsewhere. ‘Mannar Unbound’ has wonderful pictures of hundreds of pelagic seabirds roosting on sandy spits. In the five years it has taken for this book to be compiled, while the sand spits still remain, they are now covered in plastic waste, with not a bird in sight! There is a poignant picture in this book of a highly endangered Dugong. Despite five years of searching, the authors were only able to capture this picture earlier this year…that is the rarity of their sighting, and existence. As it dives into deeper, darker waters, we can only fervently hope that it is not into the fathomless depths of extinction. That, however, is up to us members of the Wildlife & Nature Protection Society (WNPS) and other conservationists who endeavour to protect and keep, not just the Dugong, but all of the other creatures of Mannar, and of Sri Lanka safe, for generations to come to observe, and marvel at. ‘Mannar Unbound’ is a publication that should appeal to all those who seek more than just a sighting of a creature and its environment, but wish to experience its total presence in the wild. It is available, on order from the Head Office of the WNPS, at a special members’ price of Rs. 5,500/-; one (1) per member. 33
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Bar-headed Goose © Dr. Sudheera Bandara
35
Wahlenbergia marginata. Horton Plains
THE HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK – A Hub for Sri Lankan Wild Flowers Dr. Darshani Singhalage Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka - [email protected] The Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) is located at the boundaries of the Nuwara Eliya, Badulla and Ratnapura administrative districts. Its elevation varies from 700m, at the lower end of the World’s End escarpment, to 2, 390m, at the summit of Kirigalpotta. These topographical variations, together with climatic conditions, creates a vast range of microhabitats within the park. Because of this, the entire park is rich in biodiversity. Different species adapt to these microhabitats producing this higher diversity. The HPNP has two main vegetation types - montane cloud forests and grasslands. Generally, the hill tops are covered by forests and the upper slopes and valleys are covered by grasslands. The grasslands in the valleys create wet habitats where fascinating plant species grow. Pethiyagoda (2012) summarizes the list of vascular plant species recorded in the HPNP, in Volume 15 of µ$5HYLVHG+DQGERRNWRWKH)ORUDRI&H\ORQ’, and records a total of 353 vascular plants indigenous to Sri Lanka from the HPNP, 119 of them endemic.
THE PRESENT STUDY The present article focuses on explaining the wild flower diversity and richness in the HPNP, not just because it is one of the premier nature tourism sites in Sri Lanka, but as it should get recognition as a location of special importance in the study of wild flowers. One phenomenon for which it is famous is the “synchronous mass flowering” of certain species, at intervals of several years. Strobilanthes are a good example of this with their mass flowering in 12 year intervals (Gunathilake, 2007). Rhododendon arborium subsp. ceylanicum from the plant family Ericaceae is one of the more conspicuous species amongst the floral community in the HPNP. This endemic, eyecatching plant cannot be missed when walking through 36
the patana1 grasslands and stunted cloud forests. This is the only tree that grows on the grasslands. Inside the forest, and protected from wind, it grows to nearly 20m in height. The survey was conducted in the HPNP during the past few years by visiting the park, at various points and at various intervals, to create a checklist of flowers in bloom. The study route was the main nature trail of the park. It is 10km long and runs through grassland and forest patches. The notable places along the trail are Baker’s Falls, Big World’s End, Small World’s End, in addition to several small streams and pools. The time required to walk the entire trail is about three (3) hours. Table 01 shows the checklist of wild flowers recorded in this study. 71 wild flower species were recorded of which 16 are endemic, 35 native to Sri Lanka. All blooming plant species observed were included in the 31 flowering plant families given in Table 01. The highest number of wild flower species recorded were from the families Asteraceae and Rubiaceae. The Orchidaceae and Melastomataceae provided the next highest. According to the data gathered, there are spikes in the number of species in flower from February – March, and again from September – October. Ulex europaeus (Gorse) was recorded in several places on the grasslands, but is one of the exotic invasive plants in the park. This plant disrupts the habitat of most native plant species living in grassland habitats. It has to be removed through interventionist conservation management. Gorse has spiny stems and branches. In fact, the spines are the reduced leaves. However, when flowering, the plant adds a splash of colour to the grasslands and to the scenic beauty of the highlands. 1 Editor’s Note: Upland grassland of Sri Lanka that commonly succeeds forest
TABLE 01: Wild flower species records in the Horton Plains National Park Family
Scientific name
Status
Family
Scientific name
Status
Acanthaceae
Rungia longifolia
Native
Juncaceae
Juncus effusus
Native
Strobilanthes zeylanica
Endemic
Lamiaceae
Coleus inflatus
Not Known
Thunbergia fragrans
Native
Magnoliaceae
Michelia nilagirica
Native
Araceae
Arisaema leschenaultii
Native
Melastomataceae Medinilla fuchsioides
Asteraceae
Eupatorium odoratum Anaphalis brevifolia Helichriysum buddleioides
Native
Exotic
Osbeckia lanata
Endemic
Native
Sonerila pumila
Endemic
Native
Tibouchina semedecandra
Exotic
Moonia heterophylla
Native
Osbeckia walkeri
Endemic
Psiadia ceylanica
Native
Osbeckia parvifolia
Native
Vernonia hookeriana
Endemic
Coelogyne zeylanica
Endemic
Anaphalis subdecurrens
Native
Eria bicolor
Native
Emilia zeylanica
Native
Oberonia wightiana
Native
Anaphalis subdecurrens
Native
Robiquetia brevifolia
Endemic
Wedelia trilobata
Exotic
Satyrium nepalense
Native
Emilia Sonchifolia
Native
Spiranthes sinensis
Native
Christisonia lawii
Native
Persicaria glabra
Native
Persicaria nepalensis
Native
Orchidaceae
Balsaminaceae
Impatiens acaulis
Native
Orobanchaceae
Berberidaceae
Berberis ceylanica
Endemic
Polygonaceae
Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum furcatum
Native
Buxaceae
Sarcococca zeylanica
Endemic
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculus sagittifolius
Endemic
Campanulaceae
Wahlenbergia marginata
Native
Rosaceae
Rubus Ieucocarpus
Native
Convallariaceae
Disporum cantoniense
Native
Rubus leucocarpus
Native
Droseraceae
Drosera petata
Native
Rubus fairholmianus
Native
Drosera burmannii
Native
Hedyotis dendroides
Endemic Endemic
Rubiaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus montanus
Endemic
Hedyotis marginata
Ericaceae
Gaultheria leschenaultii
Native
Hedyotis trimenii
Endemic
Vaccinium leschenaultii
Native
Knoxia hirsuta
Endemic
Rhododendron arboreum
Endemic
Knoxia platycarpa
Endemic
Pterocarpus indicus
Exotic
Pleiocraterium plantaginifolium
Endemic
Cassia floribunda
Exotic
Hedyotis lessertiana
Native
Ulex europaeus
Exotic
Tarenna flava
Native
Solanum violaceum
Native
Fabaceae
Endemic
Solanaceae
Exacum walkeri
Endemic
Umbelliferae
Bupleurum ramosissimum
Native
Gentiana quadrifaria
Native
Valerianaceae
Valeriana moonii
Native
Hypericaceae
Hypericum mysurense
Native
Violaceae
Viola pilosa
Native
Iridaceae
Sisyrinchium iridifolium
Exotic
Zingiberaceae
Zingiber cylindricum
Endemic
Aristea eckloni
Exotic
Gentianaceae
Exacum trinervium
SOME CONSPICUOUS SPECIES Most of the wild flower species listed in Table 01 are described in the recently published book ‘The Naturalist’s Guide to the Flowers of Sri Lanka’ by Singhalage et al., in 2018. In that book, all species are named scientifically and where available, English, Sinhalese and Tamil names are given. Each species is accompanied by high quality images taken on the field with a description on plant identification, distribution, habitats and flowering period. The rest of the article describes some of the conspicuous wild flower species records in the HPNP during the study. Coelogyne zeylanica and Robiquetia brevifolia are two most common epiphytic orchid species which along the tree trunks of the nature trail.
Satyrium nepalense (Hyacinth Orchid) and Spiranthes sinensis (Chinese Spiranthes) are ground orchid species which are very common among grasses of the wet patana. Pink flower bunches of Hyacinth Orchid are eye-catching when walking through the wet patana grasslands during the flowering season. The peak flowering times of this species are the months of July, September, October, November, December and January. Chinese Spiranthes has a spirally arranged terminal floral spike. The genus name Spiranthes is derived from reference to this. Berberis ceylanica (Barberry) is another attractive plant, which is very common on roadsides and wet patana grasslands. This plant prefers to grow as an undergrowth plant in montane forests. 37
Ulex europaeus. Nuwara Eliya
Rhododendren arboreum. Sub sp. zeylanicum
Drosera burmannii. Horton Plains
Berberis ceylanica. Nuwara Eliya
Ranunculus sagittifolius (Buttercup) produces pretty bright yellow waxy petals enabling easy identification. This is particularly easy during the flowering season because the flowers bloom above the grasses with which it associates. The Buttercup is Endemic to Sri Lanka. Hypericum mysurense (St. John’s Wort of Mysore) is very common, always in bloom and present in many places along the nature trail. Patches are very common near the Small and Big World’s Ends. Easy identification of this plant is from its much-branched shrubby stem and stiff leaves, which are very closely arranged in four (4) ranks. Drosera burmannii (Tropical Sundew) is a fascinating carnivorous plant found in nutrient poor sites. It grows close to the ground. The plant itself looks like a flower. The stem is not prominent and leaves are reddish brown. Sundew are abundant in marshy places of the nature trail.
white and bloom throughout the year. Wahlenbergia marginata (Southern Rockbell) is another attractive tiny flowered variety on the grass lands. The petals are ashy blue with white basses. They flower almost throughout the year, but chiefly from December - May.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This article was written by using the recently published book, ‘The Naturalist’s Guide to the Flowers of Sri Lanka’ (details given under references) as a base. I would like to acknowledge the other two authors, Nadeera Weerasinghe and Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne, for their enormous contribution to the book. Nadeera provided all images used in this article, which are captured from the HPNP. I also thank Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne for introducing me to the Editor of Loris, Ayanthi Samarajeewa. REFERENCES
Pleiocraterium plantaginifolium is another endemic plant that grows well in wet marshy grasslands. The bushy nature and white inflorescences are remarkable and catch the eye while on the trail.
Gunathilleke, C. V. S., 2007. A Nature Guide to the World’s End trail, Horton Pains. 1st edition, Science Education Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya. ISBN: 955-589-012-9.
There are eight Exacum spp. (Family Gentianaceae) found in the wild in Sri Lanka. On the nature trail of the HPNP, Exacum pallidum and Exacum walker were recorded. E. pallidum is an endemic and the purple flowers are in terminal bunches. The flowers of the endemic Exacum walkeri are solitary, showy and
Pethiyagoda, R., 2012. Horton Plains - Sri Lanka’s Cloud Forest National Park. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo. ISBN: 955-911441-3.
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Singhalage, D., Weerasinghe, N. & de Silva Wijeyeratne, G. 2018. A Naturalist’s Guide to the Flowers of Sri Lanka. 1st edition, John Beaufoy Publishing: UK. Pages 176.
DRIVING ELEPHANTS INTO EXTINCTION: WNPS Campaigns for Sanity to Prevail1 Rohan Wijesinha Member of the HEC Committee of the Wildlife & Nature Protection Society (WNPS) Hardly had he been in post a couple of months than the previous Minister for Sustainable Development and Wildlife proposed a solution of his own for the mitigation of the human – elephant conflict, that of driving all wild elephants into Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) Protected Areas. In fact, this was not a new strategy. From the 1950s to the recent past, the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) had had such a plan – one that they had tried repeatedly to implement and failed. Fundamental to this failure was the lack of understanding of the true situation with regard to the actual number, distribution, and behaviour of wild elephants, and the carrying capacity of DWC Protected Areas. The realization of this reality, and the repeated failures of the past, had led the DWC to finally accept that long-distance ‘drives’ of wild elephants do not work because carrying capacities of Protected Areas were exceeded, and they enshrined it as such in the National Policy for the Conservation of the Wild Elephant in Sri Lanka (2006), as updated in 2017.
Might is not right The previous Minister, as per our understanding, had no experience with wildlife conservation or sustainable development. Unsurprisingly, and in keeping with his background and understanding, he adopted a military solution to the problem, albeit with political undertones. He decided to revert, once more, to the failed policy of driving elephants into DWC Protected Areas and keeping them confined to these Protected Areas using military force. To fund this, he proposed using up the approximate Rs. 5 Billion available in the Wildlife Preservation Trust, all within the 18 months that he expected to be in office. The Minister intended to increase the existing 4,500 Km of electric fencing by a further 2,500 Km, making a total of 7,000 Km of fencing in the country. These fences were to be placed on the borders of DWC protected areas, and
all the elephants outside, including those within Forest Department Protected Areas, be driven into them. For this, he intended to recruit 3, 500 members of the Civil Defence Force (CDF) and arm them with high-powered automatic rifles to keep the elephants from breaking back out. The CDF were to be under their own command and only liaise with DWC officials. To enable this, the Minister intended building a series of bunkhouses for the CDF personnel at six (6) Km intervals along the fence lines. He wished to have one (1) CDF soldier patrolling every two (2) KM of fencing, all along its 7, 000 Km length. In addition, should any elephants break out, they would be captured, if possible, and incarcerated in two (2) elephant prisons, an existing one in Horowpathana and the other to be constructed in Lunugamvehera. It was intended that the Horowpathana elephant prison would hold up to 100 elephants in an area with a carrying capacity to naturally hold about 20 or 30. They would have to be fed every day, especially in Horowpathana as the area of this ‘holding ground’ is primary and secondary forest, with little natural food for such a high density of elephants. Most elephants already incarcerated at Horowpathana have either died of starvation or managed to escape. It is most likely that the elephants to be sent to the proposed elephant prison in Lunugamwehera will suffer the same fate. These two ‘holding grounds’ will, in fact, be concentration camps for expendable prisoners of a war waged against elephants. Most of these males will also be prime breeding bulls whose loss from the genetic pool would also have serious consequences on the future health of the wild elephant population. The then Cabinet unquestioningly approved the Minister’s proposed plan and budget, and the last remaining populations of wild elephants in Sri Lanka now faced the greatest threat to their continued existence since the British declared them as vermin and either slaughtered or drove them out of the hills, to grow tea.
1. The Human – Elephant Conflict (HEC) Committee is indebted to Drs. Prithiviraj Fernando, Centre for Conservation & Research (CCR) and Sumith Pilapitiya, former Director General of the Department of Wildlife Conservation for their advice and guidance on all technical matters relevant to the Human – Elephant Conflict.
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Why is this a flawed plan?
urgent need of feeding?
As per the last elephant census in 2011, it is estimated that there are approximately 6, 000 wild elephants left in Sri Lanka. They are found, in varying densities, across 62% of the landscape of the country. An estimated 18% of this landscape are Protected Areas – either falling under the custodianship of the DWC or Forest Department. The balance 44% is outside of these protected areas but have within them State Forests and other undeveloped forests fragments. 70% of the wild elephants of Sri Lanka live in this 44% of the landscape, and have done so for centuries, largely in coexistence with humans, adding to the richness of the culture and biodiversity of this Nation, as well as to its coffers. As per the census figures, therefore, approximately 4, 500 elephants live outside of the Protected Areas.
What happens when the initial crop has been taken?
The Protected Areas are already at their carrying capacity for elephants. That means that they have no more space or food for any additional elephants. In addition, except for a relatively few herds, most elephants have ranges that carry them out of the protected areas at certain times of the year. This movement is essential to find seasonal foraging areas, to ensure that the habitat recovers from their previous foraging and, of vital importance, that there is a mixing of the gene pool. The National Policy specifically states that “…when elephants lose their range, they die”. If the Minister’s plans are carried out, then the wild elephants of Sri Lanka would slowly starve to death since they will be denied access to their seasonal foraging areas. The Minister recognized this and proposed that 15, 000 acres of DWC forest be cut and converted to grasslands. Apart from the obvious ethical question this raises, is the feasibility of what is proposed. There have been repeated efforts to grow grass in the Dry Zone protected areas, with little success. This is because grass requires continuous watering until it takes hold and some of these regions only have rain for three (3) months of the year. In addition, an elephant requires from 250 – 300 Kg of fodder every day. Even if it was possible for grass to be grown in these areas, 15, 000 acres of grassland would feed 180 - 200 elephants. What of the other 4, 000+ who would be in
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What of the other animals that live in these 15, 000 acres of forest? On his numerous visits to villages in conflict areas, the Minister promised the people that they would no longer have to live with elephants. The only way of achieving this is to sacrifice the lives of all of the remaining wild elephants of Sri Lanka.
Human – Elephant Conflict (HEC) The human – elephant conflict results in the death of elephants and people. Approximately 75 – 85 people are killed by elephants every year. Elephants, however, are not the only creatures that kill people. In 2017, 483 people died from snake bite, 421 from mosquito bites (mostly dengue), and 89 from rat borne diseases. Humans killed approximately 9, 358 other humans – approximately 9, 000 road traffic accidents and 358 murders. In addition, there were approximately 3, 600 suicides. Elephants can eat from 250Kg to 300Kg a day depending on the gender, size and age of the animal, and of the nutrition content of whatever they are eating. If the food is high in nutrition, then they need less. Elephants are highly intelligent and recognise the high nutrition available in concentration in human cultivations. They will try to eat from them, if given the opportunity. Adult males in particular, adopt this high risk - high gain strategy. Nevertheless, according to figures quoted in the media, the highest amount of crop damage by animals, estimated at 35%, is caused by monkeys and birds (https:// economynext.com/Monkeys_drive_nut_prices__Sri_ Lanka_President-3-11466.html). Conversely, 250 – 300 elephants are killed by people every year; at least that is the number of bodies that are discovered. Many more die deep within the forests from festering wounds, in agony and out of sight of people. Statistics show that while the number of shootings, poisonings and electrocutions of elephants are, on average, about the same every year, there has been a rapid rise in the number of those killed by ‘KDNNDSDWDV¶, that horrible weapon of placing explosives into pumpkins or melons which explode on being bitten into, destroying
the jaw and mouth parts of the victim, condemning them to a slow, agonizing death.
The heart of the problem Sri Lanka needs development. It, however, requires planned development in accordance with a National policy, and not the ad hoc efforts that mushroom in the unlikeliest of places, usually with political backing. If these projects happen to be in the 44% of the landscape that people share with wild elephants, then this is currently not factored into the project plans. Of course, some of the larger projects would have Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) carried out on them which, in almost every case, would approve the project. This is because the EIAs are paid for by the project proponents and the consultants hired are highly unlikely to reach a conclusion that contradicts the desires of their paymasters. In any case, once an EIA is called for, the project has already been approved, and will go ahead regardless of any mitigation measures recommended in the EIA. What should happen in such areas is that the presence of elephants should be taken into account at the early project planning stages, mitigation plans for dealing with possible human – elephant conflict should be written into the project plans and implemented accordingly. These measures, based on research and previous experience, would result in keeping conflict to a minimum, for the benefit of the project, its stakeholders, and wild elephants. For this, responsibility lies not only with politicians and project proponents, but also with the development agencies who fund such projects.
Implementation of the National Policy The WNPS, through its Human – Elephant Conflict Committee, has consistently, over the past two years, canvassed for the implementation of the National Policy for the Conservation of the Wild Elephant in Sri Lanka (2006, as upgraded in 2017). This policy, as drafted by the DWC with stakeholder participation, has within it long-term, scientifically tested, and sustainable strategies not only for mitigation of the HEC, but also for the overall management of this keystone species in the wild, of its protection, inclusive of the prevention of the theft of baby elephants from their herds; a crime that was rampant for
some time. For more details of these measures, inclusive of strategic fencing and planned development, see the reports of the HEC Committee in previous two issues of Loris (Volume 27 Issues 5 & 6, pp. 52-55 and Volume 28 Issues 1 & 2, pp. 55-56), based on the special workshops hosted with the WNPS for all stakeholders, statutory and non-governmental. The WNPS is not alone in seeking such long-term solution, and after fruitless meetings with the Minister who was determined to pursue with his intended ‘war’, was a partner in the formation of the Elephant Conservation Coalition (ECC) to publicize and campaign against this most destructive plan, at all available forums. The price for failure was the destruction of Sri Lanka’s iconic species, and with it the inevitable devastation of the forests that they continued to be the real guardians of.
The present situation At the time of submission of this report for publication, with a caretaker Government in power, and the resulting political uncertainty, it is unsure as to whether the plan of the previous Minister is still to be acted on or has been discarded. Of what is certain is that the DWC will do the bidding of whichever Minister is in power whether or not it is in the best interests of the wildlife and wild places they are the supposed guardians of. As such, the WNPS and all other likeminded conservation groups need to be vigilant to ensure that any measures proposed to compromise the role of conservation of the DWC should be strongly resisted. After all, the DWC is the only government department there is to look after wildlife; the other 100+ are there for the welfare of people. Whatever the future political direction of Sri Lanka, as far as wildlife is concerned, it is fervently hoped that science is allowed to lead the way. Sri Lanka has some of the foremost researchers on the Asian Elephant in the World. Their expertise is eagerly sought elsewhere in the region but marginalized back here, at home. The mitigation measures suggested in the National Policy are based on the learnings from decades of research; hypotheses that have been tried and tested in practice, and work. The WNPS will continue to fight for the conservation of the wild elephant, and for all other species. After all, that is its heritage, and its commitment to future generations.
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The Elusive Fishing Cat Namal Kamalgoda A magnificent large male Fishing Cat lay in front of me, its coat shining in the early morning sun. Unfortunately it lay dead; a victim of road kill. Ironically trying to cross the road into our garden. I learnt two things that day: after years of looking for Fishing Cats in the jungle, that I should be looking closer to home and that Fishing Cats were part of our urban wildlife. Secondly I found out that people eat Fishing Cat meat. As soon as my back was turned, the man who found the dead cat and volunteered to bury it, sold the carcass for meat. Thus began a lifetime obsession with seeing a live Fishing Cat. Over the next few years, every time I got late to go home I would detour my motorcycle into the deserted roads that criss-crossed the marshes in front my house. All I did was send the local potheads and kassippu patrons running into the marsh thinking the police were on a raid. No live Fishing Cat turned up. Finally I did see a live Fishing Cat when I was not looking for it; that too in an urban setting but it was gone in a second, just enough time for me to realize what it was. And that was how I saw Fishing Cats, be they fleeting glimpses or road kills. Sightings were very infrequent and always when I was not prepared for them. I could never go looking for one and see one. Fast forward several decades. It was only after I started to spend half my time in the village of Hunuwilagamuwa at the main entrance of Wilpattu National Park that I started to see Fishing Cats on a more frequent basis. The area is essentially the national park on one side, with seasonal chena cultivation on the other. During the drought months, the deer move into the abandoned fields, as do elephants who break the electric fence on a daily basis. The deer attract leopards, and whenever I’m bored, I take a long route to where my camp was located hoping to see a leopard outside the park. There is something magical about seeing a predator like a leopard in its own environment where it’s 100% comfortable and in one 42
that you are not comfortable at all! It was not leopard that I started to see but rather its smaller cousins, namely the Jungle Cat. Less frequently the Fishing Cat and on rare occasions, even Rusty Spotted Cats. Over the last three years I have seen more Fishing Cats than in several decades of jungle travel. I have been fortunate enough to see them sleeping, hunting, and sometime just watching us in return. One individual was fast asleep on the road and I had to shoo it off the road as it refused to move from the warmth of the road. The wildlife watcher in me couldn’t be happier but the wildlife photographer in me was not happy; I had no pictures. In 2018 as the drought was just starting to hit Wilpattu, I had a guest at my camp and he wanted to see owls and maybe, just maybe, a Fishing Cat. So one evening before dinner we set off on the village roads. After several good sightings of Brown Fish Owl and a Collared Scops Owl, we were heading back to camp and we were distracted by some bats feeding on a mango tree by a lake; while watching this my keen-eyed driver spotted something moving in the lake bed among the water hyacinth. A careful look through the binoculars confirmed it as the jackpot of our search; a Fishing Cat! It seemed it was hunting for frogs. While this female Fishing Cat went about her hunting she appeared uneasy and was constantly looking over her shoulder. Then she started to snarl into the long grass behind her. My immediate assumption was that there was another Fishing Cat. A few seconds later a smaller Fishing Cat emerged, to be greeted by a good licking by the larger cat. Larger and obviously the mother, continued to snarl into the tall grass; surely there couldn’t be another! Seeing one Fishing Cat was difficult, seeing two together was a miracle; surely there can’t be three together! And just like that, another kitten joined the mother and its sibling. We were in wildlife nirvana, three Fishing Cats together; that too, a mother and her two kittens. It could get any better, but wait ...it did get better, they
started to play. What followed next was half an hour of a wildlife watcher’s fantasy, and can best be described as a special privilege that we may never experience again. The mother had to forget about hunting and join in. From wild cats they had become pussy cats, proving my point that domestic cats are wild cats that just learned to fool us into feeding and sheltering them! They played tag, follow the leader and hide-andseek, transiting from one game to another seamlessly. They would disappear into the tall grass for a while only to re-emerge elsewhere to continue their antics. Occasional breaks were taken; just when you thought it was over they would start again. Once in a while the mother would attempt to go back to hunting; the kittens were having none of it and somehow involved their mother in their games. All this was done with motorcycles and tractors going past them only metres above them. After half an hour we decided that we
should let them be and left them. They were still playing when we left. While the photographs I managed were nothing more than record shots, I couldn’t be happier as I saw something others may never see in a lifetime of searching. I may be a wildlife photographer but I am always a wildlife watcher and observer first. The Fishing Cat is one of four wild cats found in Sri Lanka and is the second largest after the leopard. While they are nocturnal and rarely seen, they do have a wide range from national parks to Colombo. Despite this they are far from secure. They suffer as road kill when we build roads across their homes, but they are mostly victims of habitat loss. We have to stop looking at wetlands as wastelands and instead, treasure them as bio rich environments harbouring a variety of wildlife. Sri Lanka should pride itself in having Fishing Cats in urban environments, but we need to ensure that their habitat is protected forever.
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The Importance of Implementing Sri Lanka’s Language Policy in Nature Conservation Vidya Abhayagunawardena Editor Warana / Vaaranam – the Sinhala / Tamil publication of the Wildlife & Nature Protection Society Today, every nation of the world faces environmental crises. These have risen to unprecedented levels primarily due to human behaviour, particularly in relation to climate change which will have a severe impact on all life on Earth. Every person’s behavior not only has an impact on her / his own immediate neighbourhood, but globally too. To effect positive change in behaviour, communication plays a pivotal role.
Sri Lanka’s natural environment under threat Sri Lanka is no exception. It has been reported that Sri Lanka is the 5th worst marine polluter in the world! At the same time, it is considered to be a global bio-diversity hotspot. Sri Lanka should take immediate action to protect and preserve its natural environment. If not, it will lose its biodiversity. Many endemic species of fauna and flora are now under severe threat, while others have already become extinct. It is of paramount importance that the Government, the corporate sector, environmental organizations and the media (those who are working, supporting and promoting nature conservation) involve each citizen of Sri Lanka, and those visiting the country, in nature conservation. To achieve this, language plays a crucial role. Further, if the conservation message is clear and easily understood, it will lead to reduced human - nature conflict and help achieve the overall conservation objectives of Sri Lanka. 44
Languages in Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, language rights are expressly protected under the Constitution as a fundamental right. Sinhala and Tamil are recognized as official languages with English as a link language. Government institutes are bound to deliver their services in a citizen’s language of choice (Sinhala / Tamil). Sri Lanka is a predominantly Sinhala and Tamil speaking country; Sinhala and Tamil speaking communities live in all 25 Districts of the country. According to the Government Census and Statistics, only 10% of the population can converse in English. This 10% can also communicate in Sinhala or Tamil. Even though language rights are protected by the Constitution, when it comes to implementation, it does not happen. In 2009, after the ending of the War, the Government of Sri Lanka started work on the implementation of an official Language Policy, as one of its highest priorities. Unfortunately, post-War Sri Lanka is still grappling with this, in some key areas, including that of nature conservation.
Failure of implementation This failure of implementation has a direct impact on nature conservation in Sri Lanka; many are unable to understand and engage with the issues due to this language barrier. This has resulted in some fatal
nature-related incidents in the recent past which could have been easily avoided if the victims were aware of how they should have behaved in such situations. Most public documents / communication mediums relating to nature are in Sinhala and English. In some Tamil speaking areas, critical for nature conservation, such public information is not available in Tamil. These documents should be available in both Sinhala and Tamil. It is rare to see any nature conservation organization in Tamil-speaking areas in Sri Lanka. Yet, very large parts of the North, East and up-country are home to varieties of endemic fauna and flora, nature parks, water bodies, forests, sea coasts, etc.
Key Government institutions The main government agencies working on nature conservation should adhere to the language policy of Sri Lanka, mainly the Ministries of Environment and Mahaweli Development, Wildlife, Fisheries, Tourism, inclusive of all departments, institutions, and statutory bodies that come under their purview, the Sri Lanka Customs, and environment ministries that function under Provincial Councils. Public communication material of most Colombo-based Government offices are in Sinhala and English. They give various excuses about their inability to produce them in Tamil. The converse is seen in Tamil language areas which produce public communication material in Tamil and English only.
Conservation organizations and the Corporate Sector In Colombo, most local and international conservation organizations and the corporate sector involved in nature conservation, work in English. Sometimes, they use Sinhala. Yet they have the resources to
produce material in all three languages. This needs to be changed. They should always try and deliver the message of nature conservation in Sinhala and Tamil, as well as English. In addition, existing conservation organizations need to work in Tamil speaking areas and help interested communities there set up their own nature organizations. This will help bridge the language gap and promote nature conservation.
The way forward The Government, conservation organizations, the corporate sector, media and those who work in nature conservation in Sri Lanka need to adhere and be supportive of the Language Policy of Sri Lanka. This will be of enormous benefit in achieving crucial conservation targets and objectives. Issues and policies on nature and the environment need to be discussed at grass root levels in Sinhala and Tamil. An important benefit of implementing such a policy would be that by respecting the language rights of local communities, it bring these communities together, especially in areas where post-war reconciliation efforts are going on. Working together on nature conservation, they can reduce and eradicate major environmental hazards such as deforestation, wildlife poaching, polluting the environment with plastic and polythene, etc. and can improve their livelihoods with nature-conservation related activities including naturebased tourism. Effective communication is at the heart of the nature conservation movement and implementation of the National Language Policy is the best way to achieve it. 45
CLOSE ENCOUNTERS IN THE WILD Ravindralal Anthonis &ŽƌŵĞƌWƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƚŽĨƚŚĞtŝůĚůŝĨĞΘEĂƚƵƌĞWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ^ŽĐŝĞƚLJ
YALA NATIONAL PARK – Buttawa Bungalow - October 1984 Filming for Rupavahini, the National TV broadcaster, my cameraman, U. S. Ratnasisri, Sunil, the equipment maintenance guy, the Rupavahini driver, Samarasinghe, Widldlife Tracker Piyaratne and I were occupying the Old Buttawa Lodge for over a month. The Park was closed to visitors as it usually is at that time. As I was a Consultant / Advisor to the Director, I was permitted to get off my vehicle and even travel about at night, if necessary. The Park was in the throes of a severe drought and, except for a few places, was tinder dry. After two weeks, we had not seen anything significant and had hardly used any footage on our Ariflex camera. We were even wondering whether to go back to Colombo and return after the rains. However, we decided to wait another five days and see whether our luck would change. On our return to the Lodge, after another luckless morning round, almost at the turn off to the lodge, I noticed a big Ranawara bush1; an evergreen which bears large clusters of flowers. After lunch, I decided to go down and photograph some of these flowers. As I was permitted to go about without a tracker, I told Piyaratne to rest. Samarasinghe and I drove down in the double cab. 1 Editor’s Note: Senna auriculata
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We went right up to the bush and I found a bunch of flowers that came right up to the window. I was able to take my shot without getting down. We were about to leave when I noticed a better bunch of flowers on the next bush, about ten yards further. As this bunch was very close to the ground I knew that I would have to get on my knees to take this shot. Telling Samarasinghe to wait, I got down and looked carefully all around. Then I walked up to the bush. Once again, before kneeling down, I looked around for any signs of life. The Buttawa Plain was desolate. Not a sign of life. Not even a bird call. Where we were there was not even an animal track or spoor. As we had been in the Park for two weeks and not seen a single elephant, and the conditions were too dry for buffalo, I was fairly confident that there was nothing around. Yet after years of self-training in the jungles, I could not kneel until I was absolutely certain there was no animal in the immediate vicinity. Once again, I looked around very carefully and listened for any sound. The only sound I heard was the wind rushing over the plain in an eerie whisper. Convinced that there was nothing close, I knelt down.
A fiery flower I was using a Pentax MX with a 35 – 50mm zoom lens with macro facility and had taken one shot and was cranking the next frame in, when I froze. From almost above my head came the loud “flop” of an elephant’s ear. My throat went dry. I looked over the Ranawara
bush and there, just on the other side, towering over me, was a massive tusker! As he lifted his head, I saw the crossed tusks, right over left, and realized that this was ‘Mahaputtuwa’2, at this time at his aggressive best. I had been charged by him several times and in August 1976, I had taken a shot of him charging me, a photograph which subsequently won First Prize at the 4th Festival of Wildlife Photography; the prize awarded to me by HRH Prince Phillip, the Duke of Edinburgh, on his official visit to Sri Lanka as the President of the World Wildlife Fund. I could hear my heart pounding so loud that I was certain the bull might hear it. He then swept his trunk over the bush, its tip about eight inches away from my face. I felt as if I had a 105 degrees temperature, with a chill going down my spine, a tightening in my stomach and my knees getting weak. The only emotion that I had was that of feeling very sorry for myself for having got into this predicament which, as at that moment, I thought I could never get out of alive.
halving the distance, going past Pomparippu. Once outside the Park, they pass the villages of Vannatavillu and Karadipuval and on to Puttalam. From this road another road branches eastward and a mile along this one comes to the Talawila and the lodge. About three months before, along this Puttalam road, a leopard had suddenly pounced on one of the buffalo calves. Before any harm could be done, the rest of the buffaloes and the two boys had managed to chase the cat off. This was repeated about a month later with similar results. But this latest attack, the day before my arrival, had taken place where the road branches off to Talawila and had taken a dangerous twist. The leopard had deliberately waited until the buffaloes passed and went for one of the two boys. The cat was chased off again but the boy was in a bad way. The Park Warden told me that he had informed Colombo of the first two attacks and requested me to speak to the Director Wildlife and avail him of the situation on my return to the capital.
Just then I felt, more than I saw, the vehicle just behind me as Samarasinghe threw open the off-side door. I had enough sense and strength to jump in. Up to today, I do not know how I did it but as I jumped into the vehicle I zoomed out to 35mm and took what is still my favourite shot of ‘Mahaputtuwa’! The nest day, Ratnasiri suggested that we do a morning round and having got to the open back of the vehicle, our usual filming position, we started off. When we passed the Ranawara bush a tingle went down my spine. Then just past Debaragawala, ‘Mahaputtuwa’ came at us in full charge with a blood curdling trumpet. Later in the evening, at the Vepandeniya Plain, he gave us an equally fiery farewell.
Two Nights to Remember at The Wilpattu National Park It was December 1983, my friend Lakshman Siriwardhana, known to all as Lucky, and I arrived at the Talawila3 Lodge, just after noon, and found the Park Warden and his deputy and a few other officers having lunch on the veranda. They were returning having gone to investigate a leopard attack on a boy along the Marichchukaddi - Puttalam road. The boy was, at that moment, in the Puttalam hospital with injuries to his throat (he succumbed to his injuries the next day). Marichchukaddi is a Moslem village where one of the main livelihoods is cattle breeding. Every now and then one or two of the village lads herd a group of buffaloes to be sold in Puttalam. They take an old jungle road that goes through the Wilpattu National Park, almost 2 Editor’s Note: The largest of the tuskers in the Yala National Park at the time 3 Editor’s Note: One of the many villus (shallow natural lakes unique to the Wilpattu National Park, and from which it gets its name)
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A shadow in the night That evening Lucky and I retired around 9 o’clock and I fell into a deep sleep. I suddenly woke; it was 2.10 a.m. We were sleeping on the open veranda. I was about to light a cigarette when a leopard called from an estimated half a mile to our left. The second call was about twenty seconds later; much closer. I woke my friend, and we felt more than saw, in the pitch-black night, something move just outside the lodge. Sitting up on my bed, I saw that it was Gunadasa, our Tracker. He joined us on the veranda as the leopard kept calling at regular intervals, getting closer all the time. This would have been thrilling under normal circumstances, but not when a deliberate leopard attack had taken place only the previous day, just a mile from where we were. From the calls, that were now very close, I judged that the cat was taking a route that would take him about fifty yards behind the lodge. He called very close to the lodge but still to our left. The next call, fifteen seconds later, was right behind the lodge. Then came silence. Utter, absolute, complete silence! Not even a cricket chirped. It seemed as if everything had gone into a ‘pause’ mode. The night was pitch black and we could not even see our own hands. I realized that the little lamp we had kept on the edge of the veranda had gone out. As long as the leopard was calling we could tell where he was, but now he could have been ten feet away and we would have been totally unaware of his presence. The atmosphere had become very oppressive; unbearably tense. I was straining my ears to try and catch the slightest noise and got a start when Lucky spoke. He suggested that we go into one of the rooms and rather than Gunadasa go back to the staff quarters, he should use the other room. Gunadasa agreed. I got up and looked around when the leopard called, far away to our right. The next call was even further. I sat down and let out a long breath. A single cricket chirped, and then another and another till the whole air was filled with their musical sound. We decided to remain on the veranda and Gunadasa returned to the staff quarters. On impulse I looked at my watch, 2.50. It had been the longest forty minutes of my life.
A fragrant evening with a feline In March 1983, Talawila was the venue of yet another experience for Lucky and I. We had arrived at the lodge in time for lunch and then had an interesting game drive. Later in the evening, we had the usual sundowner, had dinner and retired around 9.30. It was a brilliant moonlit night full of stars. While we were sitting outside, every now and then, the mild breeze brought a delightful, subtle, sweet fragrance to our nostrils. Obviously a forest, night blooming flower, perhaps born to blush unseen but its sweetness definitely not wasted in the air of Wilpattu on that, and on every one of the five nights we were there, to share of it. 48
We had put our camp beds well into the veranda, and around 11 o’clock both of us awoke feeling rather stuffy. The moonlight was still brilliant and we could see the far side of the villu as if in daylight; the water in the villu sparkling like a million diamonds, a grand sight. We decided to pull our beds right up to the then ‘stick fence’ of the veranda where the breeze played. We placed our heads almost against the fence, the top of which was now in line with our heads, and fell into deep slumber. I awoke around 6.30am. When Ratnayake, our Tracker, saw me, he came up to me and said, in Sinhala, “Sir, the leopard had been very close to your head last night”. I looked at him skeptically and asked him “How GR\RXNQRZ"´ He then said “Come and have a look”. Rather unconcerned, I followed Ratnayake outside. He pointed to the ground and a chill ran through me when I saw the pug marks. I walked down the road that comes from Panikkar Villu and reconstructed what had happened the night before. The leopard had come a long way along this road and when he came to our lodge must have seen the little lamp we had kept lighting, on a very low flame, at the edge of the veranda. Curiosity got the better of him. He jumped up onto the ledge and came right up to the “fence’ where he had stopped. I could clearly see this, as the pugs were deeper and clearer in the sand. At this point the head of the leopard and ours could not have been separated by more than a foot. Having satisfied his curiosity, he continued along the edge of the veranda then jumped down the ledge on to the road once again and continued towards Makalanmaduwa. Stuffy or not for the next five nights we put our camp beds well inside the veranda!
Surrounded in The Uda Walawe National Park The Uda Walawe National Park was established in 1972. There had been several villages in this area but after declaration most people were rehabilitated to other areas. However, two villages remained - one was Nebada with a population of only seven people and the other was Sinuggala with about thirty people. This is where the Sinuggala bungalow is now located. As I was going on an official visit, the Director of Wildlife told me to take the Department vehicle and driver. I also took my TV Cameraman, Ratnasiri, as we had not done any filming at Uda Walawe. The first two days were spent trying to convince the villagers to agree to rehabilitation. The Nebada villagers posed no problem but the Sinuggala folk were unwilling to go. The village Headman was Mahathun and he described the hardships they were going through living in this village, and yet they were not willing to leave this place. It took a further two years for the Department to successfully move them out.
A place of elephants
Taken unawares
We spent the rest of the week filming. That night, Mr. Amaratunga came to the bungalow and asked me whether he could accompany us when filming. I told him that would be no problem, in fact I welcomed this as I was still unfamiliar with the Park having been there only once before. As this Park was still not very well known there were hardly any visitors and during this period we had the Park to ourselves.
That evening, we came into the Park and had just passed the initial teak area and were climbing a low hillock, where the grass was much shorter, when I noticed two bull elephants feeding. When we stopped to watch them I saw another bull, a little smaller than these two, approaching them. The two bulls tensed. I told Ratnasiri to get ready to film but then found that this position was not ideal. There was a place to our left which gave a very good viewpoint and as it was not possible to take the vehicle Ratnasiri and I decided to walk there. It was only about twenty five yards and by the time we got there the third bull had joined the other two and we got some excellent footage of the two bulls greeting the third.
A large area of the Park is covered with a tall grass called Pohon, a type of Foxtail growing tall enough to cover an elephant. I also noticed that almost all the elephants at Uda Walawe, at that time, had pure white toe nails. This was due to the abrasive nature of this grass polishing them. Usually wild elephants’ toe nails are a dark grey or light black. Due to the drought, after the south west monsoon, the Park was tinder dry and game sightings were very poor. In fact, on the first two days we only saw a few lone elephants. Then, on the third day, our luck changed. We saw scattered herds and some very big lone bulls. The Park Warden predicted that the next day would be even better as he felt that these elephants were now gradually getting closer to the Walawe reservoir as the water holes in the Park were drying up. He couldn’t have been more right. Having got used to the elephants behaviour in the Yala National Park where they care less about vehicles, here the elephants were jittery - either running away as a vehicle approached or bunching together and getting very fidgety. One lone bull elephant, which we surprised as he came on to the road, trumpeted and charged us, then turned around and bolted the way he had come.
We were so engrossed in filming and taking still pictures we never realised that a herd of fourteen elephants had come from behind us and had now completely surrounded us. Though the herd was all around us, they were all far apart and feeding so that we had a clear path to the vehicle and I felt that if we moved slowly and cautiously we could make it. I told Ratnasiri to keep the heavy camera and the tripod where it was and to follow me. Suddenly, when we were about half way, one elephant rushed across our path and was immediately joined by six others from the herd. They formed a broad flank and watched us walk past them with quizzical expressions on their faces. I had the temptation to break into a run, but somehow kept walking. The six elephants stayed like that for a long time, and then in one quick movement, ran into the jungle joined by the others in the herd. Elephant behaviour in this Park has now changed and most of the elephants have become very aggressive. Had it been the present, I would never have done this. In fact, I would never have got down from the vehicle. 49
Ekgaloya Reservoir - a panoromic view at dawn
EXPLORING EKGALOYA WNPS Field Visit 22nd to 25th November 2018 By Sri Srikumar with the gents taking up the rear and even helping out the more elderly among them. A very nice, civilized gesture of which we are all proud of. The second day, all hell broke loose, as the sense of decorum that prevailed previously had been was hastily forgotten and a brutal “the survival of the fittest” ruled the day. One is reminded that it is these are elementary courtesies which define us as “gentle”men.
Elephant Transit Home, Udawalawe
A total of 26 members embarked on this journey to visit Ekgaloya and its surroundings. Dr. Mrs. Enoka Kudavidanage and Mr. Ravi Amarasinghe, our expert resource persons, joined us at Ekgaloya.
Thursday 22nd November 2018 We gathered in time at the Head Office of the WNPS at Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla and after loading our luggage, foodstuff and water started off at 0515 hours. The threat of late comers being left behind had again worked wonders, much to the relief of the most of us. We journeyed on in a spacious and comfortable 45 seater AC bus with much room to spare. We were on a four day/three night trip of which almost two days were spent travelling by bus to and from WNPS headquarters at Battaramulla. It has always been our gentle tradition to allow children and ladies to serve themselves first before we “gentle”men partake of our meals. (Of course the ladies would counter by saying that it was just an excuse by men-folk to have another “one for the road”). This is a courtesy that is almost always magnanimously extended by us out of our respect for them. On the first day we were reminded of our manners, by a loud call for ladies first, and all went smoothly
Milk feeding, two at a time
We arrived at Udawalawe at 0905 hours and visited the Elephant Transit Home (ETH). We watched the elephants, most of whom were orphans, being individually fed with milk and thereafter joining the others to feast on jak tree leaves. After the morning feeding was over, Dr. Vijitha Perera the Veterinarian who was also in charge of the ETH gave us a short talk about the need for and the present activities of the ETH which culminated with the elephants being gradually released into the wild. The stories of these orphaned elephants joining the wild herds, assimilating peacefully with their own kind, breeding and bringing up their own offspring was very touching and heart-warming. The ETH is heartily blessed for their important work in elephant conservation. Dr. Vijitha P also obliged by answering questions asked of him from the audience. some of the Elephants at the Elephant Transit Home, at feeding time
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Maligawila Archaeological Site MALIGAWILA is situated in the Monaragala District about 15 kms south from Monaragala and 9 kms from Okkampitiya. The main items of archaeological interest are the free-standing 12 meter tall limestone statue of Buddha, a 10 meter tall statue of Avalokitesvara and an ancient stone pillar bearing inscriptions. We went back to Colombage Ara for a buffet breakfast at Devinda Restaurant, situated next to the Lanka Petrol Shed, at 1005 hours. After breakfast, we went
Maligawila Buddha Statue
back to Udawalawe and journeyed on passing Thanamalwila, Kuda Oya, Buttala and Okampitiya to reach the Maligawila Archaeological site by 1415 hours.
Avaloketishwara Statue
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We walked through the forest of tall trees and viewed the large statutes of the Buddha and Avaloketishwara and the stone pillar bearing insciptions. These statues which had been vandalized in the past had been put together with great effort in the late 19th century. They were majestic sights to behold. The vandals are reported to have toppled these statues and stolen the gemstones which formed the pupils of the eyes of these statues. The Avaloketishwara statute, placed on a hill-side and reachable by a stairway of steep steps, emanated a subtle warmth with its benign and peaceful countenance.
White Four Ring
Water Monitor Lizard
Ancient Stone Pillar
Ekgaloya EKGALOYA is located in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka at a Latitude of 7.1697° North and a Longitude of 81.6385° East. The mean elevation is 53 meters (174 feet). It is 23 kms south-west of Ampara and 36 kms north of Siyambalanduwa along the Ampara-Siyambalanduwa (A 25) highway. It lies to the east of the Senanayake Samudra and the Gal Oya National Park. Thereafter to drove through Monaragala and Siyambalaanduwa to reach Lahugala. We were provided with a tasty packetted rice and curry lunch, followed by Ice Cream for dessert at the office of the Wildlife Department. They were not quite equipped to handle a crowd as large as ours; so we had to make do, with a few occupying their office tables and others spread all over the garden whilst consuming lunch. We departed at 1615 hours motoring through Siyambalanduwa to
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reach the Forest Department office at Ekgaloya at 1805 hours as darkness began to descend on us. A few of us were accommodated at their holiday bungalow close to the main road and the others were to be housed at their holiday bungalow situated on the banks of Ekgaloya. Unfortunately our rather large bus could not take us to this bungalow due to the unsuitable condition of the untarred road leading to the bungalow. With the assistance of our resource persons, Dr. Mrs. Enoka K
and Mr. Ravi A, jeeps were made available to firstly transport our luggage and thereafter the rest of us in 3 jeeps upto the bungalow. It was 1945 hours when we reached and settled in at the bungalow. This bungalow which had been built at several levels on the rock resembled a tree house with many rooms starting with the dining area on the ground floor, 2 rooms partly under the rock a bit higher up, a large dormitory with 6 beds more higher up, another 2 rooms with a view of the lake a bit further up on the other side and one room perched right on top. The Auditorium
White Bellied Sea Eagles
was situated close-by among the trees. All rooms had beds with mattresses, each bed with a bed-sheet and pillows with cases. Mosquito nets were available in some of the rooms. The detached toilets were supplied with pipe-borne water and electricity was off the main grid. A comfortable rustic set-up sited among the trees and rocks bordering the beautiful Ekgaloya lake. After dinner we had sliced pawpaw for dessert after which we were briefed of the program for the following day and then retired to a good nights sleep after a long day spent mostly inside the bus.
Painted Stork
The Auditorium
Friday 23rd November 2018 Tea was served at 0500 hours after which we went by jeep to meet up with the rest and board the bus which was parked on the main road.
Senanayake Samudra, Galoya We sped on to the Galoya reservoir and went along the bund to its end, at which a holiday bungalow was sited. The statue of our Late Prime Minister D.S.Senanayake who is accredited with the building of this wewa, and named after him as the Senanayake Samudra, is situated on a rock which lies on the lower reaches of Iginiyagala. A good view of the lake can be seen from here. Legend has it that the Inginiyagala mountain was named after the Veddah Chief “Iginiya” who was present at the opening ceremony.
Senanayake Samudra, Galoya
We had our breakfast of boiled gram (Kadala) whilst on the tank bund. A good half an hour went by for the thralldom of bureaucracy to crank itself alive and get through the paperwork and issue the tickets for the boat ride. Finally it was past 0700 hours when we were able to don life jackets and board the three 8 seater kerosene powered outboard motor boats for our ride in the Senanayake Samudra.
panaromic view of the Senanayake Samudra
53
the bunda
the beautiful lake
the distant hills
The waters were calm throughout our journey and we went cruising along examining the birds and the occasional elephants on the islands.
one little Egret
two little Egrets
three little Egret
four little Egret
A large number of Grey Herons, Black headed Ibis, Black Crowned Night Herons, White Bellied Sea Eagles, Brahminy Kites, Whiskered Terns, Cormorants and Egrets were seen. A few Eurasian Thick Knees, Indian Peafowl, Greater Coucal and Kingfishers were also seen.
loading up
on the way
up closer
clearly visible high water mark
birds nesting
birds resting
Black Crowned Night Herons
Grey Herons
Spot Billed Pelican
54
White Bellied Sea Eagle
going back to base
a parting look
a panoromic view of the vast Senanayake Samudra, from the boat, another of which is visible in the centre
We returned to the tank bund around 0930 hours. The exhaust fumes from the kerosene oil used for powering the boats was very noxious and unpleasant to smell and the oil leaking into the water created polluting oil films detrimental to marine life. We hope the authorities would take up this matter and introduce more Eco-friendly boats.
Tri Coloured Munia
Brakminy Kite
Sri Lanka Swallows
Baya Weaver
Malabar Pied Hornbill
A few of us walked along the tank bund and beyond observing the birds and butterflies while the 4th boatload departed on their tour in the light drizzle which turned into a light shower and ceased a little while later. We observed Barn Swallows, Zitting Cisticola, Tri-coloured Munia, Prinias, Malabar Pied Hornbills, Parrots and a Cattle Egret and an Indian Roller on the trees and bushes. Around 1230 hours we drove back to Ampara for a buffet lunch. 55
Digavapi Digavapi is located 7°17 North and 81°47 East in the Ampara District of the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka. It lies 19 miles east of Ampara via the Ampara-Damana-Siyambaladuwa (A 25) highway. It is a Buddhist sacred shrine and an archaeological site with historical records dating back to the 3rd century BC. Legend states that the Buddha visited and meditated at this site, in veneration of which King Saddhatissa (137-119 BC) built this chaitiya.
Digavapi ruins
After tea we visited the Digavapi Archaeological site. We walked around the burnt brick ruins of the dagoba awed by its vastness. The Buddha’s teaching of “Impermanance” was yet again quite readily displayed in the ruins that we beheld. Red Rumped Woodpeckers, Black Capped Orioles, Common Kingfisher, Prinias, Green Bee-eaters, and Scaly Breasted Munia were seen in the trees close by.
SL Lesser Flameback
Black Hooded Oriole
Scaly Breasted Munia
We drove on and had tea around 1600 hours at Siyambalanduwa after which we proceeded towards Buddhangala. 56
Buddhangala Buddhangala is located 7.3318380° North and 81.7036430° East in the Ampara District of the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka. It lies 8 kms from Ampara on the Buddhangala Road, off Dharmapala Mawatha, off the AmparaUhana-Maha Oya highway. The monastery is dated to the 4th century BC and the relics of the Buddha’s chief disciples, Sariputta and Maha Moggollana, are stated to have been enshrined here. We crossed the little bridge and walked up the rock and lingered around the Buddhangala Chaitya area hoping to observe the sunset, but departed a while later since dark clouds had covered the horizon. On the way back we noticed the beautiful large disc of the yellow tinted full moon and regretted that we had not stayed on at Buddhangala to watch the moon-rise.
Dinner was served as usual followed by sliced mangoes for dessert. We were briefed on the program for the next day which included a river bath. After enjoying an eventful day, with a long soothing 2 ½ hour boat ride in the serene waters of the Senanayake Samudra, we retired to sleep.
Saturday 24th November 2018 Tea and biscuits were served at 0500 hours after which we left by jeeps to board the bus on the main road. We drove to Ampara and thereafter towards Bibile.
Nilgala Forest Nilgala is located in the south eastern flank of Sri Lanka to the north west of the Gal Oya National Park in the Lower Uva Basin in the Gal Oya valley. It is approx. 267 kms from Colombo towards the east. The closest town is at Bibile from which a 22 km drive on a tarred road leads to the turn off to the Nilgala Sanctuary. It is presently managed by the Department of Wild Life Conservation and the Nilgala park office is sited about 10 kms from the sign posted turn-off from the main road. The characteristics of the park, which is mainly Uva lowlands and savanna forests are: Location:High elevations 305 – 915 mm Intermediate Zone – Badulla, Bibile, Nilgala, Lunugala & Gal Oya Climate:Temperature:about 300 C Rainfall:1,875 – 2,250 mm The land is generally flat with a few outcrops of huge granite rocks. The common tree species are Aralu, Bulu, Nelli, Kahata and Gammalu; the fruits of which are of medicinal value and are widely used in Ayurveda. Forest fires, mainly man made, are frequent in this region. The trees are evergreen and fire resistant and about 3-4 meters in height. The grass species are Mana and Illuk which are about 1.5 meters tall which cover the grassland savannas. The unique fauna of the region includes the Painted Partridge and the Yellow Footed Green Pigeon which is only found at Nilgala. Butterflies include the Baronet which is only found in grassland savannas of similar climatic conditions. Elephants, buffalo, monkeys, mongoose and monitor lizards are frequently encountered in the jungle. 57
The ticket office is located about 10 kms from the main road leading to Bibile. At the turn off 5 jeeps were ready to take us into the Nilgala Forest of the Galoya National Park. We stopped at the ticket office entrance and had our breakfast of Milk Rice (Kiri Bath), Katta Sambol and Fish Curry followed by plantains for dessert at the summer house by the paddy field close to the park rangers quarters. Thereafter we walked for the short while observing birds in the vegetation along the road leading to Makare. The Velvet Fronted Nuthatch, Bar Winged Flycatcher Shrike and Grey Tit were among the birds that were seen. At the small man made wewa we boarded the jeeps and drove towards Makare. Rain was our companion as it poured down on and off.
Nilgala Rock
The Galoya river was in spate and flow of water at the popular bathing spot close to Makare was very strong and the water muddy, making it unsafe for bathing. We drove back and stopped at a stream that flowed across the road and enjoyed a river bath in the cold, water. Many butterflies, including the specialty of Nilgala, the Baronet, was sighted in the shrubs and bushes bordering the road. An Asian Python, a rare sight, was seen at the foot of a tree in the jungle close by.
enjoying the cool waters of the river
the Galoya River in spate, close to Makare
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58
We drove back to the park entrance and stopped at the bungalow close to the ticket counter to have lunch. After lunch we thanked our resource persons for sharing their knowledge and their assistance and departed from Nilgala.
Velvet Fronted Nuthatch
the Baronet
thanking our Resource Persons
We drove on, back to Ekgaloya and spent a short time observing the bird life as it got dark and were rewarded with the sighting of the moon-rise. The full moon lit up the entire lake area and we enjoyed the serenity of this beautiful sight. We relaxed awhile and
Ekgaloya at dusk
Sunday 25th November 2018 We woke up for tea and biscuits at 0600 hours and walked along the Ekgaloya frontage observing birds in the water and those flying overhead. A mound of termites had spawned and the airborne flies were all spread all over. Brahminy Kites, Whiskered Terns, Green Bee-eaters, Asian Palm Swifts, Little Swifts, Baya Weavers and Prinias were among the many birds which feasted on these flying insects. Thereafter we retired for breakfast of Pol Rotti, Katta Sambol and Fish curry. After breakfast we packed up our belongings which were loaded into a jeep for our departure from Ekgaloya. Many of us opted to walk through the jungle trail to the road whilst others opted to travel by jeep. The bus
the Jeeps on the way back
met up for tea and biscuits after which lively banter prevailed until dinner-time. After dinner we had ice cream, made available in abundance, for dessert and went off to sleep and take rest.
bird watching tower
was loaded with our luggage and we commenced on our journey back home. We stopped on the way to buy mangoes to take back home and enjoyed sliced mangoes whilst in the bus. We drove through Thanamalwila and stopped close to Udawalawe to visit the pottery shop and buy glazed pottery souvenirs. We passed through Udawalawe and stopped at Embilipitiya for a sumptuous rice and curry buffet lunch. We sped on through Middeniya and entered the expressway at Matara. We stopped at the expressway restaurant for tea and were delayed by a torrential downpour. We drove on through the rain to reach the WNPS Headquarters at Battaramulla around 1930 hours and departed homewards after an exciting and enjoyable trip. 59
IN GENERAL An enjoyable, active and informative trip on the whole. The weather was hot and sunny in the mornings and cloudy in the afternoons. A short shower on Saturday evening was followed by a continuous drizzle. The rain followed us around but did not unduly hinder our activities.
Our appreciation to: • The Hon. General Secretary WNPS the WNPS Committee and staff for the time and effort spent in organizing the trip and the flawless logistical arrangements • Dr. Vijitha Perera for sharing his knowledge on Elephants and explaining the activities of the ETH • Dr. Mrs. Enoka and Mr. Ravi Perera for sharing their valuable knowledge with us and for their assistance in obtaining jeeps to transport us to and from our lodgings at Ekgaloya • Our hosts at the Ekgaloya Forest Department for assistance at our lodgings
• Our hosts at the Wildlife Department at Lahugala for hosting us for a tasty packetted lunch • The Boatman at Galoya for safely navigating the waters of the Senanayake Samudra and the enjoyable boat ride • The jeep drivers at Ekgaloya for carefully driving us to and from our lodgings on several occasions and for helping us with our luggage • The jeep drivers at Nilgala for their skillful driving and courteous conduct • The Bus driver for his careful, albeit quite fast, driving and bringing us back safe and sound and his assistant for his courtesy and being helpful in loading and unloading baggage • Our special thanks to all participants for adhering to the email sent to all of us viz. “Consumption of alcohol is strictly prohibited throughout the trip”. A personal favourite and a sense of relief for many of us. • All our participants for their overall orderly conduct, pleasant friendly companionship and camaraderie which added greatly to an enjoyable field visit.
WNPS Group - the travelers at Nilgala; the bare bodied ones were drenched in the rain
This travelogue was compiled by Sri with photographs by Sri; the group photograph was by Spencer M. The views expressed are those of the writer and not necessarily those of the WNPS. 60
MURIWAI’S GANNET BREEDING COLONY Nishanthi Perera During a recent visit to New Zealand I had the opportunity of visiting an Australian Gannet breeding colony in the Muriwai Regional Park, located about 30Km northwest of Auckland City. Locally known as the Takapu refuge, it is located at the Otakamiro Point. About 1, 200 pairs of gannets nest here from September to March each year. The Australasian Gannet (Morus serrator), a member of the Family Sulidae, is primarily a coastal species, generally occurring close to the New Zealand and south Australian coasts and adjacent islands. They usually feed over the continental shelves or inshore waters, seldom far from land, and their diet comprises mainly of pelagic fish, especially pilchard, anchovies and jack mackerel, and squid and garfish. Prey are mainly caught by plunge-diving, but they are also seen regularly accompanying trawlers.
Breeding locations Breeding is seasonal, from September - May, when they nest on the ground in small but dense colonies. After breeding, the adults tend to stay within the vicinity of the colony while the young birds disperse (BirdLife International, 2016). Around 87% of the population breeds in New Zealand, with the rest breeding in Australia. Most New Zealand gannet colonies are situated on or around the North Island. The largest mainland colonies, about 5, 000 breeding pairs, are at Cape Kidnappers and nearby Black
Reef islets. The other substantial mainland breeding site is at Otakamiro Point, Muriwai, established in 1979, apparently as an overflow from the nearby Motutara (Pinnacle) Rock and Oaia Island. The Muriwai gannet colony is the most accessible colony for members of the public to see and appreciate the birds. It is widely photographed and the whole colony can be relatively easily surveyed from selected vantage points. In 2016, a total of 1, 385 incubating birds were counted on the cliff tops and adjacent sand slip at Otakamiro Point, with a further 187 nesting birds seen on Motutara (Frost, 2017). At Muriwai, the birds nest on three rocky platforms which extend from Otakamiro Point - the northernmost being a low reef known as Fisherman’s Rock. The other two are wide cliff-top ledges - one is known as the Southern Cliff Platform, and the other as the Northern Cliff Platform. A wide fenced track leads to two viewing platforms directly over each cliff platform. Motutara Island lies about 30m offshore, between the two cliff platforms (Greene, 1999). This crowded colony makes their nests just out of reach of each other so that they are unable to peck one another. Woe-betide any hapless gannet that accidently lands or wanders within strike range!
Breeding behaviour Gannets form monogamous pair-bonds, often longlasting but probably only maintained at nest-sites. Pairs use the same nest site year after year, and 61
fiercely defend their territory. The mating rituals are spectacular and start in late September, reaching a peak in November. ‘Bill-fencing’ is one such ritual observed extensively during the pre-reproductive period of pair formation. The first chicks hatch in February, although some could come as early as December. The highest number of chicks, and the best time to view all stages of chick development, is during February and March.
such as swimming, surfing, and fishing, while hang gliding and horse riding are catered for on land. A golf course and campground also operate under licence. Despite its scale, Muriwai faces challenges due to competing uses, and damage to the dune system from natural causes and recreational use. The park is being managed to balance these diverse activities, while acting to protect the dune system and park from the threats of erosion (Auckland Council, 2010).
After fledging from the breeding colonies most of the juveniles migrate up to 5, 000 Km westward across the Tasmanian Sea to the southern and eastern coasts of Australia. Birds return to their natal colonies when 2 - 5 years old and start breeding when 4 - 7 years old. During the winter, the adults seem to disperse mainly around the coast of New Zealand, although some may head back across the Tasman Sea (Stephenson, 2005).
Acknowledgment
The Muriwai Regional Park
Frost, Peter G. H. (2017): Population status and trends of selected seabirds in northern New Zealand. https://www.doc.govt.nz/ Documents/conservation/marine-and-coastal/marine-conservation-services/reports/status-and-trends-non-procellariformseabirds-final.pdf
Muriwai is home to a wide range of birds, though it is the gannets that most visitors come to see. During our short visit, we also noted that White-fronted Terns (Sterna striata) nest on cliffs below the Gannets. This tern species is the most abundant and widespread in New Zealand, found around both main islands. They also occur along the south-east Australian coast (Frost, 2017). Several species of Gulls, Variable Oystercatchers and a Fur Seal were also seen. The Muriwai Regional Park is an extensive coastal park running over eight (8) Kilometres along the rugged west coast. It has unique, nationally significant ecological and geological features. It provides for a range of recreational activities focused on the sea, 62
Special thanks to Sadamali Kariyawasam and her son Jacob for taking me to see this natural wonder.
References BirdLife International. 2016. Morus serrator. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22696675A93578724. http://dx.doi. org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696675A93578724. en. Downloaded on 03 October 2018.
Greene, Brenda S (1999): Increase of gannets (Morus serrator) at Muriwai, Auckland. NOTORINS Journal of the Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Volume 46, Part 4. December 1999 https:// www.notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_46_4_423.pdf Stephenson, Brent Mark (2005): Variability in the breeding ecology of Australian gannets, Morus serrator, at Cape Kidnappers, New Zealand. PhD thesis. https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/ handle/10179/1907/02_whole.pdf Auckland Council (2010): Regional Parks Management Plan Volume 1: Management Policies https://www.aucklandcouncil. govt.nz/plans-projects-policies-reports-bylaws/our-plans-strategies/topic-based-plans-strategies/parks-sports-outdoor-plans/ Documents/regional-parks-management-plan.pdf
REVISITING THE TAXONOMY OF GRAPSID CRABS OF NEGOMBO LAGOON Dr Leonard Pinto From 1976 -1979, when I was working on the ecology of fauna of mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon (Kakaduwa, Mandagas alamba and Kadol nallela), I noticed the abundance and diversity of graspid crabs in these muddy islets. They belong to the family, Grapsidae, commonly called marsh crabs, but the locals call them ‘shit crabs.’ Like other land crabs, they breath will gills, and make burrows. Burrows help them to escape from predators, wet their gills, drag leaves in for feeding and probably for mating. Burrowing
activity helps the environment in the vertical recycling of nutrients. Figure 1 shows the shapes of burrows of crabs found in these mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon, sketched by slicing mud, following the path of the burrow. Six of them belong to family Grapsidae, one of each belongs to families, Portunidae (Scylla serrata) the edible mud crab, Ocypodidae (Uca lactea), the fiddler crab and Macrophthalmidae (Macrophthalmus depressus). Some burrows are complex and others single, but they all end below the water table.
Figure 1. Burrows of crabs of Negombo Lagoon (Pinto 1984)
As there was limited literature published on this taxon in Sri Lanka, I had recourse to the Journals of Bombay Natural History Society, which referred to species with similar morphology and characteristics from mangroves as belonging to genus Sesarma of family Sesarmidae. Genus Sesarma is now considered to be endemic to American Continent, hence their occurrence in the Indian Subcontinent must have been revised by now. My collection of grapsids reached the British Natural History Museum in 1978 through late Prof George Dunnet, on his return from an expedition to Yala National Park with his Aberdeen researchers and their counterpart from Colombo University. As the identification of grapsids from Asia was difficult, the British Museum sent them to Dr Raoul Serène in
Paris, an expert on grasids, who had worked in Raffles Museum, Singapore as a consultant. All the names given in this paper are his identifications and I used them in my book, Mangroves of Sri Lanka (Pinto 1986). Now, they need to be revised, supported by robust analysis of morphological, genetical and behavioural characteristics, and multivariate analysis to ensure that they are not mere variation. He identified the following six species of grapsids. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Neosarmatium malabaricum Neosarmatium smithi Neoepisesarma versicolor Chiromantes bidens Chiromantes darwinensis
6. Chiromantes indiarum
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Dr Serène’s identification of Neosarmatium malabaricum (Figure 2) is unquestionably correct, and he gives a description of this species in Spolia Zeylanica (Serène,1975). In 1994, Peter Davie of Queensland Museum, compared Serène’s specimen of Neosarmatium malabaricum, collected from a mangrove fringed coconut grove, near Pegasus Reef Hotel with the holotype in the British Museum, and found it to be similar. It is about 3 cm in width, purple in shell colour with a rounded shell and a unique marking on the shell. It prefers sandy soil and upper reaches of the shore where the soil is dry. We noted that it is active in the evening and makes T-shape burrows, so that it can move to the safer arm of the burrow, when threatened (Figure 1).
Figure 2. Neosarmatium malabaricum
All the other species require revisiting and probably revision. We get into the first controversy with Neosarmatium smithi (Figure 3), which we collected from the mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon only at night, when it was raining and the islets were flooded. Similarly, Giddins et al. (1986) found Neosarmatium smithi to be active and feeding only at night in Townsville mangroves, Australia. However, in Kenyan mangroves, Fratini et al. (2000) and Gillikin (2000) found Neosarmatium smithi during the day and considered it to be a diurnal species. In 1994, Peter Davie from Queensland Museum revised the genus Neosarmatium of Serène and Soh (1970) and found all Australian records of Neosarmatium smithi, including that of
Giddins et al. (1986) to be Neosarmatium trispinosum. Regarding the burrow shape of Neosarmatium smithi, there is another disagreement. We collected them from ‘turrets’ (pittu bambu) of their burrows at night from the mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon in rain. Turrets are mud tubes, protruding from the ground upwards from complex burrows underneath (Figure 1). These open mud tubes are about 50-60 cm in diameter and about 50 - 150 cm in height. They are constructed adjacent to a plants to be supported by them. The turrets would be single or double. Turrets are an adaptation to maintain the conditions of the burrow, when it is flooded. So far, it is only in the islets of Negombo Lagoon that site-specific turrets and complex burrows of this species have been reported (Pinto 1984). Gillikin and Verheyden (2016) did not mention turrets of Neosarmatium smithi in Kenyan mangroves and quoted my observations on the complex nature of burrows of Neosarmatium smithi indirectly through Peter Davie (i.e. quoted as: Pinto 1984, cited by Davie 1994 ). However, Willam Macnae (1968) who had a broader knowledge on mangroves of the Indo-West Pacific region had referred to the turret building habit of Neosarmatium smithi in mangrove environments, as we have observed at Kakaduwa, and Mandagas alamba in the mangrove islets of Negombo. Recently, troublesome monkeys from nearby towns have been introduced to Kakaduwa, and I hope that the turrets have not been destroyed by them. The turrets can be easily distinguished from the the mounds made by the mud lobster, Thalassina anomala, also found in these islets and active at night. I noted the Thalassina mounds in these islets are much smaller, compared to those in the mangroves of Southeast Asia. The second species of controversy is Neoepisesarma versicolor. In the mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon Neoepisesarma versicolor was observed during the day and they made simple burrows (Figure 1). But, in Thailand, they stay in burrows during the day and come out at night to feed on mangrove leaves (Thongtham and Kristensen, 2005). In quoting this paper, Herbon and Norhaus (2013) referred to this species as Episesarma versicolor. It may be a mistake or a further revision with a new name. i.e. Episesarma versicolor instead of Neoepisesarma versicolor. If Episesarma versicolor is the new name of Neoepisesarma versicolor, then there is a problem as Episesarma versicolor in Singapore climbs mangrove trees for feeding and is known as the “climbing crab,” not a burrowing crab.
WNPS Group - the travelers at Nilgala; the bare bodied ones were drenched in the rain
Figure 3. Neosarmatium smithi
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There is another disagreement on the shape of the burrow of Neoepisesarma versicolor. Thongtham and Kristensen (2003) noted that Neoepisesarma versicolor
burrows in Bangrong Mangrove Forest in Thailand to vary from simple straight burrows with few branches to complex labyrinthine structures with up to 5 openings. In our observation of this species in Negombo Lagoon, we noted that they make simple burrows. Neoepisesarma versicolor did not build turrets in the Negombo Lagoon, and there was no mention of turrets in this species in Bangrong Mangrove Forest in Thailand. The comparison of burrow-shape, feeding time and presence/absence of turrets of Neosarmatium smithi and Neoepisesarma versicolor from the mangroves of Negombo Lagoon with those from mangroves of Kenya, Thailand, Singapore and Australia raises questions on the identification of the two species in relation to their habits and habitat. The reason for this discrepancy may be, • The species referred to in the five countries are different (unlikely, but possible), or • They are different sub-species with different feeding and burrowing habits (possible), or • The two crab species behave differently in different countries, with respect to feeding time, burrow shape and turret (species concept questioned, unlikely) or • Dr Serène, who identified the species or I, mixed up the labels of these two species (unlikely). I remember the red claw, and the turret that no author had referred. • They had different burrows but climbed the turrets of another species to avoid flooding. Accidental occurrence at the burrow (possible, but unlikely). • Taxonomic inversion of the two species had occurred since Dr Serène identified the two species (very unlikely).
Figure 3. Neosarmatium smithi
The third species of controversy from the mangrove islets of Negombo Lagoon is Chiromantes darwinensis. In his paper in Spolia Zeylanica that Dr Serène published in 1975, he referred to the rediscovery of Chiromantes darwinensis, as well. In 1977 Serène identified 3 species of Chiromates from my collection. They are
Chiromates darwinensis, Chiromantes indiarum and Chiromates bidens. Five years earlier, on 12 and 18 October 1972 Serène had collected specimens of Chiromantes darwinensis, also from sites near Pegasus Reef Hotel and assigned holotype to the one collected on 18 October 1972, and paratype to the one collected on 12 October 1972. In the year 2000, Peter Davie re-examined the sesarmids collected and identified as Chiromantes darwinensis from Sri Lanka by Serène and deposited in Raffles Museum, Singapore. There were also specimens of this species, collected from the Andaman Coast of Thailand by an English expedition and deposited at the Phuket Marine Biological Centre, Thailand, which Naiyanetr had listed as Chiromantes darwinensis in 1998. Peter Davie compared the Australian species Perisesarma darwinense, with Chiromantes darwinensis collected by Serène from Sri Lanka, Chiromantes darwinensis from Andaman Coast of Thailand and fresh specimens of Chiromates darwinensis collected in 2003 from Sri Lanka. Davie (2003) concluded that “Chiromantes darwinensis” from Sri Lanka and Thailand are actually a new species, which he called Perisesarma bengalense1. The tubercles on the claw, the pattern of dentition on the cutting margin of the claw and the degree of granulation on the outer face of the palm distinguished Chiromantes darwinensis from Perisesarma bengalense. Davie is of the view that Chiromantes darwinensis is endemic to north-western Australia, and it does not go that far as Sri Lanka. What would be the fate of other two species, Chiromantes indiarum and Chiromantes bidens that Serène identified from my collection of mangrove crabs of the islets of Negombo Lagoon? Could the former now be Perisesarma indiarum or Parasesarma indiarum and the latter Perisesarma bidens or Parasesarma bidens or any other? Whatever the revised names be, our field observation was that Serène’s Chiromantes darwinensis and Chiromantes indiarum, with black shells did not make burrows, but were found in crevices and furrows of puddles and small water holes or among mangrove roots. In contrast Chiromantes bidens, with mottled shell of golden yellow and blackish green, differed from the other two in making simple burrows in well-drained soils (Figure 1). The above discussion shows the amount of research 1 Species is defined as a sexually isolated group of plants or animals that breed only with the individuals of the group, producing fertile offspring. In earlier days, taxonomists used the differences in morphological characteristics to determine sexual isolation. Now, genetical, chemical and behavioural (e.g. burrow shape, sexual behaviour) differences are also used in grouping. Taxonomists often split or lump groups or assign which characteristics are primitive or derived, and accordingly build an evolutionary tree (phylogeny).
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material available for our biologists to explore in Sri Lanka in general, and in Negombo Lagoon in particular. We still do not know the reproductive biology of grapsids or their larval development. We know that crabs moult then mate, and in the case of mud crab (Syclla serrata) the female swims to the sea with sperms stored in the spermatheca. In the sea, the eggs are fertilised as they pass the spermatheca. This is necessary, as the emerging larvae need high salinity, and as they grow they drift to low salinity estuaries with the tide. Grapsids, like some freshwater crabs may be short-circuiting their larval stage into a juvenile stage. In Negombo mangrove islets, we observed a large percentage of moulting grapsids in October and a peak of ovigerous females in November in the rainy months of October to November (2nd Inter-monsoon). In these islets, juvenile grapsids were abundant in January-February (North East monsoon). Yet, we don’t know the quantities of nutrients recycled by these grapsids in the environment. We noted possible sex reversal in juvenile sea crab (Portunus pelagicus) or P. armatus in the lagoon, another interesting area for future research. We also came across an uncommon burrowing sea anemone on the mudflats adjacent to Kakkaduwa. Dr J.C. den Hartog of Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Netherlands who examined the specimen asked for more specimens to identify the species, but by then I have left Sri Lanka. There are also plenty of fiddler crabs on the shores of Negombo Lagoon. Much work has been done in other countries on the reproductive behaviour of fiddlers by simple observations (Murai et al., 1987). Burrow-mating (BM), surface-mating (SM), wandering females and multiple-copulation have been studied and attempts made in discovering their evolutionary advantage/ disadvantage in sex for pleasure and sex for procreation?
References Davie, P. J.F. (1994). Revision of Neosarmatium Serene and Soh (Crustacea: Brachyura: Sesarminae) with descriptions of two new species. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 35(1): 35-74. Davie, P.J.F. (2003). A new species of Perisesarma (Crustacea: Brachyura: Sesarmidae from the Bay of Bengal. The Raffle Bulletin of Zoology 51 (2): 387-391. Fratini, S., Cannicci, S., Vannini, M. (2000). Competition and interaction between Neosarmatium smithi (Crustacea: Grapsidae) and Terebralia palustris (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in a Kenyan mangrove. Marine Biology 137:309-316. Giddins, R.L., Lucas, J.S., Neilson, M.J., Richards, G.N. (1986). Feeding ecology of the mangrove crab Neosar66
matium smithi (Crustacea: Decapoda. Sesarmidae. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 33: 147-155. Gillikin, D.P. (2000). Factors controlling the distribution of Kenyan brachyuran mangrove crabs: Salinity tolerance and eco-physiology of two Kenyan Neosarmatium species. M.Sc. Thesis. Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium. Gillikin, D. P. and Verheyden, A., (2016). A field guide to Kenyan mangroves. Neosarmatium smithi H. Milne Edwards, 1853. www.madeinnys.com/mangrove/n_ smithi.htm. Herbon, C.M., Nordhaus, I. (2013). Experimental determination of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope fraction between mangrove leaves and crabs. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 490: 91-105. Macnae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-West-Pacific region. Advances in Marine Biology, 6:73-270. Murai, M., Goshima, S. and Henmi, Y. (1987). Analysis of mating system of fiddler crab, Uca lactea. Animal Behaviour, 35 (5): 1334-1343. Pinto, L. (1978). Some ecological aspects of selected mangrove islets in Negombo Lagoon (Sri Lanka). M. Phil. dissertation, Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Pinto, L. (1984). Some ecological aspects of a population of mangrove crabs occurring within the islets of Negombo Lagoon Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Asian Symposium on Mangrove Environment. Research and Management. 311-330. Ed. E. Soepadmo, A.N. Rao & D.J. Macintosh. UNESCO/ University of Malaya, Malaysia. Pinto, L. (1986). Mangroves of Sri Lanka. NARESA Publication, Natural Resource, Energy & Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Serène, R. (1975). Rediscovery of Neosarmatium malabaricum (Henderson, 1893) and Chiromanthes darwinensis Campbell, 1967. Spolia Zeylanica, 33:1-16. Serène R. and Soh C.L. (1970). New Indo-Pacific general allied to Sesarma Say, 1817 (Brachyura, Decapoda, Crustacea), Treubia 27 (4): 387- 416. Thongtham N. and Kirstensen, E. (2003). Physical and chemical characteristics of mangrove crab (Neoepisesarma versicolor) burrows in the Bangrong mangrove forest, Phuket Thailand with emphasis on behavioural response to changing environmental conditions. Vie et Milieu 53 (4): 141-151. Thongtham, N. and Kristensen, E. (2005). Carbon and nitrogen balance of leaf-eating sesarmid crabs (Neoepisesarma versicolor) offered different food sources. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 65 (1-2): 213-222.
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