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NUR FATIHAH BINTI MAHADI_AS229_FYP1 DRAFT Flipbook PDF
NUR FATIHAH BINTI MAHADI_AS229_FYP1 DRAFT
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COMPOSTING OF VARIOUS RESTAURANT WASTE USING TAKAKURA HOME METHOD IN SHAH ALAM
NUR FATIHAH MAHADI
Final Year Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science (Hons.) Environmental Technology in the Faculty of Applied Sciences Universiti Teknologi MARA
JANUARY 2021
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Nowadays, along with the increasing of population, the land pollution has been identified as one of the environmental problem which can trigger other types of pollution like water pollution from the production of leachate of the piles of the solid waste in the landfill, air pollution from the production of methane gases resulted from decomposition of organic waste in the landfill which will cause the greenhouse effects later, smell pollution to the nearby residential areas around the landfill and cause uncomfortable condition for the people around the area. Then, solid waste management has become a critical environmental issue and is one of the major growing concerns not only for urban areas but also in the rural areas all over the world. The over-production of domestic wastes which comprised of kitchen wastes, ashes from fires, broken utensils, and worn-out clothing (Md. Azizul, 2003) as happened in India that generates about 700 million tons of organic waste annually from cities alone (Awasthi et al., 2014) while in Taiwan which about 18-20% of wastes are from food waste, 22-30% are green wastes (Kumar et al., 2009). Then, composting has been recognized as one of methods to recycle the waste back into the soil as fertilizers. Composting is emerging to be a popular municipal waste management alternative both in developed and developing countries and in many cases, it needs lower equipment and operation costs. Composting is
involving with using the food wastes as its key ingredients along with the bulking agents and microorganisms to speed up the process. As stated by N. Ebrahiem (2015), food waste is any by-product or waste product from the production, processing, distribution, and consumption of food and it is not consumed by humans and can be generated at any level within the food chain.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Solid wastes disposal has been a critical issue now day as Malaysia headed toward the developed country and this is also led to increasing population, thus making the total disposal of solid wastes in the landfill keeps increasing. There are several popular methods used in Malaysia as to overcome the overgenerated wastes such as incineration and landfilling. For the landfilling, about 165 disposal sites in the country, which cater up to 95% of Malaysian waste. However, about 80% of these dumps have almost reached full capacity and are expected to be shut down over the next few years (Nadzri, 2013). While for incineration, Malaysia only has one WTE plant located at the central region and 4 mini-incinerators under various stages of implementation in Langkawi. Both disposal methods involve a high cost of maintenance and large area needed to build the WTE plants and landfills. Thus, the method to recycle the waste and save the cost, composting has been recognized as one of the methods which most applicable and environmental-friendly as the food wastes mostly consists of organic materials which can be used as composting components. Even the among the composting method itself there are composting which high cost such as aerated static pile composting which needed the large area to do a compost. One of the composting methods which can be easily done is Takakura Home Method as it only will be needed the materials which easily found even in the kitchen and the little space needed for the compost.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This study focusing on the experimentation and synthesize of compost from the restaurant wastes which consisting of food wastes and at the same time analyzing the compost physical and chemical parameters which can lead to the result to increase and enhance the fertilizers made from composting. The composting can benefit to reduce the production of food wastes being disposed at the landfill and at the same time reduce the introduce of new landfill. The result from this conducted study also be as knowledge or guidelines to the farmers or even people which interested in the gardening to use organic fertilizers instead of chemical and synthetic fertilizers which then will bring harm to the soil composition and increase the harmful chemicals in the soil. This study will implement the composting method which much less cost and environmental-friendly compared to the incineration or disposal in the landfill and reduce all the pollution possibly caused by the incineration and disposal in landfill. The fertilizers made from composting also can increase both economic and environmental sustainability of waste management (Md. Azizul, 2003) in Malaysia. The conducted study also can expose and acknowledge the benefits of restaurant food waste which most people did not know. One of the benefits of restaurant food waste composting are benefit for the economy as can reduce the number of trash pickups in the premises lower the waste removal bill. Then, if the
restaurant grows its own produce, then by using its own compost can reduce cost needed to purchase expensive fertilizer.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The objectives of this study as stated below: 1. To synthesize the compost from restaurant food waste. 2. To observe the physical and chemical composition of the compost from food waste.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
There are many types of waste which can be used to make a compost as long as it is organic waste, however within this study, there are only selected waste which is only food wastes generated from the restaurant. This is shown as one of the limitations in this study which only focusing on the limited type of waste which it is only to focus on the restaurant food waste. Then, in Malaysia, there are a lot of restaurants which can be choose as a site to collect the samples, but it will take a long time to do so. The limitation has been considered here is to only select a few restaurants located nearby the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam for collection of the restaurant food waste samples for the synthesize of the compost.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION
Wei et al. (2014) and Storino et al. (2016), stated that, composting is the most favorable, eco-friendly, and economically viable waste treatment technology when managed effectively. There are so many definitions which had been defined by many researchers in research papers which can be giving into one meaning, compost is the endproduct that have achieved its stability, harmless, served as a high-quality fertilizer which known as mature compost and being proved by the presence of aromatic humic substances (Jednak et al., 2017). It can become an excellent nutrients and soil amendments (Ros et al., 2014) and this is resulting from mixing process and degradation of organic waste performed by certain type of bacteria and can be amplified by buffering agent. In addition, composting given a meaning of the process for the treatment of solid organic waste which is controlled decomposition of raw compost materials by microorganisms to form a compost. The composting also can be defined in a way proposed by Awasthi, 2017, the compost is made by serial action of specific group of microorganisms which produce an end-products that usually can be used for organic purposes in order, to serve its main aim to increase the soil nutrients level (Liu et al., 2011; Kopcic et al., 2014; Chan et al., 2016).
2.2 COMPOSTING 2.2.1
Source Material for Compost
The source of waste to do a compost can be categorized into the materials that can be compost and non-compostable materials. The compostable materials are mostly the materials made from organic material as its major content as for non-compostable materials are mostly made from inorganic materials which are difficult to degrade and cannot be recycle to be used in composting. Non-compostable materials also cannot be degrade by the bacteria which play a major role in converted the solid waste into stablilize end product which is compost.
Table 2.2.1: (a) The source material for compost can be categorized into compostable and non-compostable materials. Compostable Material •
Sewage sludge
•
Industrial
Non - compostable Material •
Coal ash
•
metal
pulp, and paper)
•
glass
•
Yard and garden waste
•
plastics
•
Municipal solid waste (up to
•
diapers
70% organic matter by weight)
•
the roots of persistent weeds
waste
(e.g.,
•
Soft pruning
•
Clipping and leaves
•
Kitchen waste
•
Paper
shredded
grass cuttings
food,
(bindweed and couch grass) •
leaves with persistent disease (ash black spot)
mixed
with
•
Meat or fish
•
Cooked food
The table above shows that the source of materials commonly used for composting. The compostable materials shows the organic materials which is favourable to be used in the making of compost and can produce a good quality of compost. The materials which can be used in compost are sewage sludge, industrial waste (e.g., food, pulp, and paper), yard and garden waste, municipal solid waste (MSW) which up to 70% organic matter by weight, soft pruning, clipping and leaves, kitchen waste (fruit peelings, teabag, eggshell), and paper shredded mixed with grass cuttings. While for non-compostable materials that means the inorganic materials that cannot be used in the compost as these materials are unfavorable in composting and will not produce a good quality of compost. The non-compostable materials are like coal ash, metal, glass, plastics, and diapers. There are also the organic materials which cannot be used in compost like the roots of persistent weeds (bindweed and couch grass), leaves with persistent disease (ash black spot), meat or fish and cooked food with the possibility to attract vermin (S. Tweib et al., 2011). The source materials for compost also can be categorized into three groups which are organic waste from household, organic waste from commercial horticulture and agriculture and organic waste from commercial and industrial sectors.
Table 2.2.1: (b) Shows the categorize for source of materials into three groups; household organic waste, commercial horticulture and agriculture organic waste and commercial and industrial sectors organic waste. Household organic waste
Commercial horticulture and Commercial and industrial agriculture organic waste
Fruit
and
sectors organic waste
vegetable Leaves
waste Egg and nutshells
Agro-industrial
Grass cuttings
(e.g.,
Tree and bush pruning
tobacco,
Tea leaves and coffee Weeds ground (with filters) Hair,
feathers,
Windfall fruit
Wood ash
harvested
Flowers, garden plants,
roots, stems) Wood
Toilet
paper,
kitchen
roll, paper tissues Pet droppings and litter
and
cotton
Waste from commercial ponds
Remains of plants and
plant mold
breweries,
industries)
wool, Market waste
cotton, leather
from
waste
crops
(e.g.,
chippings
and
shavings Straw Green cuttings and waste from public parks etc.
(algae,
hyacinths),
sludge
dredged sediment.
water, and
Table above shows the categorize for source of materials into three groups which are household organic waste, commercial horticulture and agriculture organic waste and commercial and industrial sectors organic waste. The household organic wastes referring to the municipal solid wastes which is the everyday generated waste like fruit and vegetable waste, egg, and nutshells, tea leaves and coffee ground (with filters), hair, feathers, wool, cotton, leather, wood ash, flowers, garden plants, plant mold, toilet paper, kitchen roll, paper tissues, pet droppings and litter. Then, for the commercial horticulture and agriculture organic waste which often generated in large scale like leaves, grass cuttings, tree, and bush pruning, weeds, windfall fruit, market waste, remains of plants and harvested crops (e.g., roots, stems), wood chippings and shavings, straw, green cuttings, and waste from public parks etc. Next, the commercial and industrial sectors organic waste which generated the wastes like agro-industrial waste (e.g., from breweries, tobacco, and cotton industries), waste from commercial ponds (algae, water, hyacinths), sludge and dredged sediments.
2.2.2
The Phases in the Composting
Composting phases are divided into mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling and maturity phase (Wu et al., 2019).
Mesophilic phase
Thermophilic phase
Cooling phase
Maturity phase
Figure 2.2.2: Shows the flows of the phases in the composting
i.
Mesophilic phase or Initial Activation stage This phase take time about 1-3 days only. Within this phase,
mesophilic bacterial population continued to proliferate with production of more enzymes that resulted in proper humification (Vargas-Garcia et al.,2010). The mesophilic bacteria raising the temperature of the composting mas up to 44°C (111°F). The mesophilic bacteria can be included with E.Coli and other bacteria which can found in the human intestinal tract. However, these bacteria soon will be inhibited by the temperature as the thermophilic bacteria replaced in the transition range between 44°C-52°C (111°F -125.6°C).
ii.
Thermophilic stage Thermophilic phases take time about few days to several months. During the thermophilic phase of composting, the pathogen is killed, the refractory organic matter is degraded, the heavy metal form is changed (Kharrazi et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2020; Hao et al., 2019). Thermophilic microorganisms will be very active and produce high amount of heat, thus the temperature can rise to about 70°C (158°F). At this time, composting becomes a valuable resource that can be recycled.
iii.
Cooling stage After the thermophilic stage, the humanure will appear to have
been digested but the coarser organic material may not yet. The next stage in the composting is cooling stage which takes about a few months. During this process, the microbial mass will start to gradually decline. This is happened as the microorganisms that has been chased away by the thermophiles migrate back into the compost and digest the more resistant organic materials. Then, the examples of organism which can breakdown the coarser materials into humus are macroorganisms (earthworms and sowbugs) and fungi.
iv.
The curing, maturing or aging stage This stage is a long process and an important one as it adds a
safety net for pathogen destruction. Immature compost can be harmful to the plants as it can produce a phytotoxins, can rob the oxygen and nitrogen of the soil, and can contain high level of organic acids. The mature compost can be identified as it already looks, feels, and smells like rich, dark earth rather than rotting vegetables.
2.2.3
Basic Composting Process
Composting is basically can be said as biological processes which is dependent on several important factors.
Figure 2.2.3: Shows the flow diagram of the basic composting process (Ahmed & Rahman, 2000)
Md. Azizul (2003) has stated several factors which are crucial for composting operation such as: (Ahmed & Rahman, 2000)
The waste materials chosen to use in composting must be biodegradable
Suitable number and types of microorganisms must be present
The rate and efficiency of composting are depending on the activity of microorganisms
Environmental factors (pH, temperature, and presence of oxygen) control the process and must nutritionally balance.
2.2.4
The Role of Nitrogen Cycle in Composting
Nitrogen Fixation
Denitrification
Nitrification
Assimilation
Ammonification
Figure 2.2.4: (a) Shows the flow chart of the nitrogen cycle
In the anaerobic composting, there is the main cycle which play a major role in determining the quality of the composting which is nitrogen cycle as it is
the redox reaction and a basic biochemical process that is mainly mediated by microbial communities during composting (Jiang et al, 2015). Nitrogen is the crucial element in the composting (Shi et al, 2018, 2020; Steiner et al, 2010). The major processes under nitrogen cycle are:
Figure 2.2.4: (b) Shows the major process involved in nitrogen cycle within the composting
As one of the important steps in nitrogen cycle, denitrification which converted nitrate (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) (Lycus et al, 2018). Denitrification as in the traditional view which it can only initiated under anaerobic condition, which this due to lack of dissolved oxygen. Recently, it has been found that denitrification occurred during composting especially with the raw materials contains a high nitrogen and water content. In addition, mostly denitrifying microbes has an ability to degrade the aromatic compounds which
may contribute to the catabolic pathways N2O is one of dominant greenhouse gas and causes nitrogen loss of composting, thus there are several biochemical processes which could control denitrification during composting and at the same time increasing the nitrogen use efficiency and improve composting quality.
2.2.5
Applications of Composting
There are various applications of using the compost to the environments. The compost can be used for soil conditioning, kitchen gardens and lawn dressing, managing organic waste, eliminate most phytopathogens, reduce methane emissions, enriches the soil, and altered the pH of soil. It can be the most promising technologies to treat wastes in a more economical way as for many centuries composting has been used as a means of recycling organic matter back into the soil to improve soil structure and fertility. Compost as a soil conditioning as it leads to addition of balanced nutrients to soil reducing soil erosion as well as the improvement in the soil’s structure, aeration, and water retention. As kitchen garden and lawn dressing as it is excellent for growing quickly maturing crops (vegetables and flower) and increasing its production when combined with intensive gardening by as much as 3 to 5 times. Next, as for managing the organic waste, composting allowing the organic materials to form into the more simpler and pack form for management, thus reducing the rising in the amount of organic waste in the disposal field like landfill and reducing various types of pollution like land, water, and air pollution.
Composting also can be important agent to reduce the methane emissions produced from landfills and reduces carbon. It enriches the soil, helps in retaining the moisture and eliminates pests and plant diseases. Lastly, the composting altered the pH of the soil as the optimum pH for the cultivation of most fruits, vegetables and herbaceous ornamental plants are usually between pH 6.0 and pH 7.5. If the soil is too alkaline (> pH 7.5), by composting it can lower the pH value also in other way, if the soil is too acidic (< pH 6.0), the compost also can solve this issue (R. Gulati, 2020).
2.3 COMPOSTING METHODS
There are about five types of methods in composting which are Bin composter or indoor composting, vermicomposting (Fauziah S.H, 2009), aerated (turned) windrow composting, aerated static pile (ASP) composting, and in-vessel composting.
Figure 2.3: (a) Shows the setup for the in-vessel composting
In-vessel composting might be one of the most attractive an environmentally friendly and economically viable technique to the transformation and of organic wastes through a group of active microbial biomass and finally conversion of humified end products called compost (Chang et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017). This method consists to a group of methods which confine the composting materials within a building, container, or vessel. It involved on a variety of forced aeration and mechanical turning techniques to
speed up the composting process. By comparing with windrow and ASP, it is more efficient, and less space or land area required. In addition, the composting time taken when using this method is much shorter accompanied with good control of the operational system (R. Gulati, 2020).
Figure 2.3: (b) Shows the indoor composting method which using the pit/bin to store the compost
Indoor composting involves with storing damp organic matter (a ratio of green, carbon rich waste and brown, nitrogen rich waste) in compost bins so that materials can undergo breakdown process into humus.
Figure 2.3: (c) Shows the windrow composting in the open-spaced area
Windrow composting is the commonest open composting system which known as outdoor composting system that depends strongly on mechanical aeration where the composting waste is flipped at interval throughout the composting process. This method involved putting the compost in the pile in spaced, triangular pointed rows, and the aeration begins by flipping the row into the space preceding it. It takes a lot of space and the time taken for compost to reach maturity also longer. Windrow composting requiring to place the mixture of raw materials in long narrow piles (wind - rows) that are agitated or turned on a regular basis.
Figure 2.3: (d) Shows the aerated static pile composting
Aerated static pile (ASP) where the organic waste is mixed in a large pile. In order, to aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (wood chips, shredded newspaper) are added as these agents can provided a space for air to pass from bottom to the top of the pile. In other ways, the piles also can be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile. By setting up a timer or temperature sensors, air blower can be activated.
Figure 2.3: (e) Shows the vermicomposting method which using the red worms
Vermicomposting involves the biological agents which is red worms. The red worms being put in bins to feed on the food scraps, yard trimming, and other organic matter in order, to create a compost. This worm will break down the compost raw material into high quality of compost (castings). One pound of mature worms (approximately 800 – 1, 000 worms) can eat up to half a pound of organic material per day. Usually, to produce the usable castings which can used as potting soil, it takes time about three to four months. Next, other product of the vermicomposting known as “wormtea” which used as a high- quality liquid fertilizer for houseplants or gardens. Eisenia foetida, Pheretima elongate, Eudrilus eugeniae, and Perionyx excavatus are the efficient species of worms (Tyler. G, 1981). The worms manure then is used as a nutrient rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. The advantages of this method, it is a cost – effective, time saving, simple, easy-to-control, energy saving and efficient process of recycling non-toxic animal and agricultural and industrial wastes. The vermicast is said to be rich in nutrient because it consists of N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
vitamins, enzymes, and growth- promoting substances (Fauziah SH and Agamuthu P.,2009)
2.4 CONTROL PARAMETERS OF COMPOSTING
Overall, composting is mostly affected only by these factors, as it can be classified by two groups which has been stated by Li et al. (2013) are depending on the formulation of composting mix, such as nutrient balance, pH, particle size, porosity and moisture and another group is depending on process management, such as oxygen (O2) concentration, temperature, water content and compaction. The author which is M. Rastagi et al, said it is possible that the control on parameters such as pH, bulk density, temperature, porosity, nutrient content, C/N ratio, particle size, moisture and oxygen supply are essential in order, to get the main idea about the optimal process conditions.
Figure 2.4: Shows the several control parameters for the compost pile
C, N, P and K are required by microbes in composting as major nutrient (degradable organic-C) for energy supplement and development activity (Iqbal et al., 2015). Other than the mentioned factors, Bernal et al. (2009) also stated that the ability of waste to degrade throughout the composting may differs depending on the chemical constituents of the waste, natural load, and microbial efficiency in the compost matrix. At the same time, environment condition directly influenced the microbial activity and the rate of organic matter to degrade during composting (Hueso et al., 2012). In addition, weather conditions (temperature and humidity) of the study area may also affected the composting degradability.
2.4.1 Moisture content
The moisture condition basically affects the microbial activity, oxygen uptake rate, temperature, and the porosity level within the composting (Petric et al.,2015). According to Bernal et al. (2009), the effective composting needing about 50-60% (v/w) moisture content depending on composition of the raw material. This statement are true as different raw materials used in composting has a different moisture content. The relationship between moisture content and temperature are inverse relation as it exhibits an increase in temperature as the moisture content is decrease (Varma and Kalamdhad, 2015). The rate of organic matter decomposition is dropping as the higher evaporation caused by elevated of temperature. To overcome this raising problem, rewetting the treatment piles must be done to maintain sufficient moisture condition and for waste
microbiota functional well. Then, compost with the higher moisture content that recommended could generate waterlogs with prevalent anaerobic conditions which can halt the process of composting (Makan et al.,2013). Among all the raw materials which demanded the stated moisture content, there is exceptional as for lignocellulosic composting with raw material such as rice straw, it demanded the higher moisture content to soften the strong fibrous material, giving a positive effect on the process.
2.4.2 C/N ratio
In formulating the composting mix, a nutritional balance in the form of an optimum C/N ratio is an important aspect. Variations in C/N displayed the rate of organic degradation proceeds with time as governed by the extent of carbon transformed to carbon dioxide (CO2). The ideal C/N ratio needed are within the range of 25-35; stating that microorganisms required 30 parts of C per unit of N (Kutsanedzie et al., 2015). Although, there are some author such Kumar et al. (2010) presented a good result even with the initial C/N values between 20 – 50. Higher C/N ratio than the recommended will slowed down rate of composting and caused nutrient deficiency to microbiota which due to excessive accumulation of the substrates and the other hand, lower C/N ratio leads to increased N content per C (degradable) and inorganic nitrogen which possibly to be lost as ammonia through volatilization or leaching (Zhang et al., 2016). In addition, in order, to optimize the C/N within composting, the used of bulking agents are highly recommended as additives to waste. Bulking agents such as sawdust, rice husk, peanut shell, and woodchip) are likely to promote the rate of composting by develop enhanced porosity in the feedstock material and homogenize the waste before composting (Wang et al.,2015).
2.4.3 Particle Size Distribution
Particle size plays a major part as it determined the porosity level to ensure the suitable aeration and regulate the gas/water exchange (Zhang et al.,2016). Get et al. (2015), stated that ‘sieving’ as a foundation method to determine optimum distribution of the particle size in a compost mass. The suitable particle size can be achieved by shredding and chipping the waste into smaller pieces which this to make sure an increase in availability of surface area for better microbial activity during composting resulting in rapid degradation. The anaerobic condition later (due to clogging of the smaller surface area with water) in the composting mostly due to compaction of the feedstock by small particle size (compared to normal). While, for larger particles sizes processed a smaller surface area, being less accessible for microbial action and develop big air pockets, thus decreasing the matrix temperature, resulting in slower decomposition of organic matter (OM) (Varma and Marschner, 2013). The outstanding degradation was attained with waste particles sized at 25 mm, which provided suitable physical and chemical conditions for bioactivity as in study conducted by Zhao et al. (2017) during a tobacco composting process.
2.4.4 Aeration /oxygen supply
The purpose of the aeration is to provide oxygen solely for microbiological processes, temperature control, moisture optimization and removal of excessive carbon dioxide (CO2). Oxygen concentration range should be between 15-20% for desirable composting result as proposed by Latifah et al. (2015). Nakasaki and Hirai (2017) written that oxygen concentration is directly correspond to the microbial dynamics and temperature which must be maintained below 60-65°C, to make sure the sufficient oxygen is supplied within the process (Latifah et al., 2015). Process time (waste to stabilize) shortening resulting in complete transformation of carbon (C) to carbon dioxide (CO2) and reduced methane emissions as the aeration at an early composting is sufficient. On the other hand, the excessive aeration within the compost could result in defective composting, causing drastic effects on the waste decomposition rate (Awasthi et al., 2014). The study conducted by Zhang and Sun (2016) which they obtained a result on effects of higher aeration rate towards the compost. A higher aeration rate (0.2 – 0.6 L min-1 kg-1 OM) during waste composting moderated the C/N ratio, NH3 generation and releasing an odor, but it negatively affected the maturity of compost. While, for lower aeration rate (pH 8) as the result of protein mineralization (production of ammonia) and the delay N, lost through ammonia volatilization at consecutive stages of composting. In composting, the ideal pH values fall between range 5.5 – 8.0 (Zhang and Sun, 2016), but Bernal et al. (2009) beg to differ that pH value between 6.7 – 9.0 is effective to promote good microbial action. On the contrary, Zhang and Sun (2016) observed the reduction in microbial activities when exceed the pH 9.0, it is proved by the presence of nitrogenous compounds in the compost mass. The survival chances of pH sensitive microorganisms may lower due to the elevated pH causes alkalization of compost mass and this abundantly contributing to sanitation of the compost (Hachicha et al., 2009).
2.4.7 Bulking Agents
The MSW properties are brought up by the addition of bulking agent during the modification in composting. The common bulking agents being used that promotes the efficiency of composting of waste are wood chips, sawdust, rice husk and cornstalks (Yang et al., 2013). Nonetheless, a large wood chip would reinforce even better aeration through the compost pile and provide lesser carbon per unit mass compared with the wood shavings or sawdust. In the study by Awasthi et al. (2015), the cocomposting of the organic fraction of MSW (OFMSW) with wood as bulking agent, just within 28 days, a well matured compost was produced. Besides, based on Silva et al. (2016) which used carbon sources and wood chips as bulking agent and assessed the usefulness of co-composting on the quality of poultry manure compost. He presented on enhanced waste degradation process and the final compost quality met the recommended standard values.
2.5 COMPARISONS OF AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING
There are two fundamental types of composting process which fall under aerobic composting and anaerobic composting.
2.8.1
Aerobic composting
The decomposition of organic wastes in the presence of oxygen (O2). This type of composting will produce an odorless end-product and it is a fast process. Products from this process include carbon dioxide (CO 2), ammonia (NH3), water and heat. The moisture contents of around 60-70% and carbon to nitrogen ratios (C/N) of 30/1 are favorable and any significant variation inhibits the degradation process. Generally, wood and paper provide a crucial source of carbon while sewage sludge and food waste provide nitrogen. To ensure a sufficient supply of oxygen throughout, ventilation of the waste, either forced or passive is necessities. (Yvette B. et al., 2000).
Figure 2.8.1: (a) Shows the diagram for the aerobic condition inside the compost
Figure above shows the aerobic condition inside the compost which there is air flow within the compost. The composting which implements this types of composting will have the free air space so that the air which is oxygen can freely flow. This oxygen supply will be used by the involved microorganisms in order, to decompose all the organic waste within the compost pile. The way of the compost can obtain this aerobic condition is by turning over process which is to turn over the compost in order to aerated the compost.
2.8.2
Anaerobic composting
The decomposition of organic wastes in the absence of oxygen (O2) resulting the products which are methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3) and detectable amounts of other gases and organic acids. Anaerobic composting was traditionally used to compost from animal manure and human sewage sludge, but nowadays it has become more common to treat some municipal solid waste (MSW) and green waste in this way (Yvette B et al, 2000). This type of composting is characterized by strong odors, small amount of energy generated, which this leads to longer time is taken to decompose and does not reach sufficient temperature to safely kill all the plant pathogens, weed, and seeds
(R. Gulati, 2020) and also it is a slow process. In order, to overcome the insufficient in temperature, artificial heat was added into the compost. In addition, it occurs by using microorganisms that do not require oxygen to survive and do its work.
Figure 2.8.1: (b) Shows the diagram for the anaerobic condition inside the compost
The figure above shows the anaerobic conditions within the compost piles as it represent no air or oxygen flows throughout the composting process. In the anaerobic condition, there are only have the pores filled with the water and low pore space. Anaerobic condition introduced as no turning over process involved. When there is no oxygen flows, so no microorganisms which need the oxygen will be involve in the composting process.
2.9 FOOD WASTE GENERATION IN MALAYSIA
In the past two decades, Malaysia has been going through a rapid economic growth which resulted in expanding urban area, population growth, rising of consumption level and portrayed in the change of lifestyle (N. Ebrahiem, 2015). Ebrahiem (2015) has stated that “the amount of the waste produced referred basically to the growing of population number, industrial development and standard of living improvement which may leads to lifestyle change” (Narisa, 2004). In Malaysia, the present generation of municipal waste is more than 31, 000 tonnes/day (Agamuthu et al., 2009). The organic waste in Malaysia as portrayed in Figure 2.1 is quite high compared to other types of waste produced in Malaysia (paper, plastics, glass, metal, textile, wood etc)
Figure 2.9: Shows the waste composition in Malaysia from 1975- 2003
From the figure above, Ebrahiem (2015) which commented the highest is organic waste which consist most of the kitchen’s organic waste. By selecting cities that is planned cities and has most of population which are Petaling Jaya, Kuala Lumpur, Shah Alam and Bangi as site collection for sample, the compound of MSW created can be observed.
2.10 COMPOSTING FROM RESTAURANT OR FOOD WASTE
In the case study conducted by Sakaguchi et al. (2018) which mentioned about the in-vessel composting system which is not used in the surveyed restaurant as such systems process compost quickly on-site and come in a variety of sizes (Spencer, 2007), negating any space concerns and have high initial costs. In addition, The City of Berkeley does not provide financial incentives for owning compost. In Korea, the composting is the primary methods used for food waste management which about 19% of the generated food waste was treated by this method in 2008 to 2009 (N. Ebrahiem, 2015). While Ebrahiem (2015) also stated as in the Singapore which composting plant has been proposed for the purpose of increasing the recycling options, and for diverting food waste away from incinerators as well. The introduced composting process is an aerobic type based on (Suk-Hui et al., 2007). In India, composting of food waste is coupled with municipal solid waste and extensively implemented in India which has more than 70 composting
facilities. Nasihah et al. (2018) said that, in India which every year approximately 4.3 billion tonnes of compost produced from food waste which stands at 5.9% of MSW. Composting practice to utilize food waste to produce bio-fertilizer are introduce by Taiwan government through national programme called “Total Recycling for Kitchen Garbage”. The production of bio-fertilizer through composting also implemented in Thailand which about 15% of food waste from MSW was decomposed into bio-product (biogas and bio-fertilizer). However, Nasihah et al. (2018) commented on the implementation of composting method of food waste might be less effective in developing countries and the reasoning given which is due to improper segregation of food waste from other solid waste and poor food waste management framework.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, it will describe in detail about the chemicals, instruments needed, working procedure and data analysis for the Takakura Home Method composting which introduced by a chemist from Himeji Technology Institute, Japan which is Koji Takakura. The method focusing on the domestic organic solid waste from home such as food wastes, vegetables, or dried leaves. Then, there are various controlling parameters of composting of restaurant which consisting of many types of waste such vegetable wastes, fruit peels, food waste etc. will be introduced and further explained. The physical and chemical analysis of compost samples is also performed for various types of collected wastes.
3.2
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
There are various kinds methodological approach which can be used in order, to obtain the data for the conducted study such as quantitative data, qualitative data, primary, secondary data, experimental and descriptive. In this study, the suitable and the chosen methodological approaches are by using mixed between quantitative data and qualitative data.
3.3
SAMPLES COLLECTION The various of samples of solid wastes for the Takakura home method composting will be collected from various types of restaurants, four study areas are selected which can be categorized as group 1 in the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam and another three from nearby restaurant around the UiTM Shah Alam as group 2, 3 and 4. Next, another three restaurants around UiTM Shah Alam that will be selected which are Mamak restaurant, Western food restaurant and Malay restaurant.
3.4
SETUP A COMPOSTING OF TAKAKURA HOME METHOD
3.4.1
RAW MATERIAL NEEDED FOR COMPOSTING From all the collected restaurant wastes from four different type of restaurant, not all types of the solid wastes will be used in this type of composting. The raw materials needed for this Takakura Home Method composting are orange fruits or tempe, brown sugar, water, container or airtight container, a box (for the storage of fungi), rice husk, soil, a container for composting and the collected solid waste from various of restaurants.
3.4.2
CHEMICAL AND APPARATUS a) Moisture Content Apparatus needed for the determination of moisture content are analytical balance, electric oven with the adjustable temperature, weighing dish or aluminium boat, desiccator, spatula, and glove.
b) pH The apparatus and chemicals needed for determination of pH value for the compost are pH meter with the electrode, scales, (0.1 g reading), distilled water, buffer solution pH 7.0, buffer
solution pH 4.0, 0.01 molar CaCl2 solution, 500 ml beaker, 150 ml conical flask, parafilm, 150 ml measuring cylinder, glass rod, thermometer, mesh