Story Transcript
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Perinatalhttp://www.postpartum.net Mental Health Advanced © 2021 PSI Psychopharmacology Training
Presented by: Postpartum Support Interna�onal
http://www.postpartum.net © 2021 PSI
PSI Advanced Perinatal Psychopharmacology Agenda
www.postpartum.net/professionals/trainings-events/advanced-pmh-psychopharmacology/ 9:00-9:15
Introductions of presenters, participants, objectives and how workshop functions PART 1: Antidepressants, Anxiolytics and Hypnotics
9:15-9:30
Case 1a: PTSD and depression; key principles in prescribing antidepressants
9:30-9:45
Case 2a: GAD; preconception planning; antidepressants and risk of autism
9:45-10:00
Case 3a: Anorexia nervosa and depression; antidepressants and neonatal side effects
10:00-10:15 Case 4a: Antenatal depression; antidepressants and neonatal pulmonary hypertension 10:15-10:25 Case 5a: Panic disorder; perinatal considerations for paroxetine 10:25-10:35 Case 6a: Hyperemesis gravidarum 10:35-10:50 break 10:50-11:05 Case 7a: Postpartum depression prevention 11:05-11:20 Case 8a: OCD and depression; antidepressants and breastfeeding 11:20-11:30 Case 9a: PTSD; prazosin 11:30-11:45 Case 10a: Childhood sexual abuse; suicidality; breastfeeding 11:45-12:00 Case 11a: Insomnia; sleep aids 12:00-1:00
Lunch break PART 2: Mood Stabilizers and Antipsychotics
1:00-1:15
Case 1b: Schizoaffective disorder; valproate
1:15-1:30
Case 2b: Bipolar disorder; preconception planning; lurasidone; FDA pregnancy risk categories
1:30-1:45
Case 3b: Lithium
1:45-2:00
Case 4b: Postpartum psychosis; mood stabilizer/antipsychotics and breastfeeding
2:00-2:15
Case 5b: Lamotrigine
2:15-2:30
Case 6b: Carbamazepine
2:30-2:45
Case 7b: Schizophrenia
2:45-3:00
break PART 3: Medication-assisted Treatment for Substance Use Disorders
3:00-3:15
Case 1c: Cigarette smoking
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3:15-3:30
Case 2c: Alcohol use disorders
3:30-3:45
Case 3c: Opioid use disorders PART 4: Medications for ADHD
3:45-4:00
Case 1d: ADHD
4:00-4:30
Wrap up, Q&A, evaluations 6 hours CME/CNEs
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POSTPARTUM SUPPORT INTERNATIONAL PERINATAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY
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Today’s Workshop • By working through cases together, you will hone your skills in: Assessing relevant aspects of history and illness severity Designing a treatment plan for perinatal mental health conditions
including, but not limited to, psychotropic medication
Understanding and communicating risks of medications vs. risks of
untreated symptoms during pregnancy and postpartum
• We will cover: Antidepressants, anxiolytics, and hypnotics Mood stabilizers and antipsychotics Medications for substance use disorders Medications for ADHD © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Golden Rules of Treatment • When a woman is pregnant or postpartum, you have two
patients
• All treatment decisions are Based on a risk/benefit analysis Made on a case by case basis
• No single medication is safest or “best” for use during
pregnancy and the postpartum period
• No single study tells the whole story • All literature must be read critically, figuring out which
conclusions are supported by the methodology
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Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, and Hypnotics
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Case 1 Lynn is a 32‐year‐old woman with post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and recurrent severe depressive episodes, with two past suicide attempts. After several medication trials which were ineffective or caused side effects, she’s doing well on venlafaxine. Today she leaves you a voice mail saying she’s just tested positive for pregnancy, estimated at 7 weeks. She plans to discontinue venlafaxine and wants your advice on how to taper, because she knows abruptly stopping venlafaxine can be difficult. How do you respond? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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What are the possible perinatal risks of untreated symptoms in Lynn’s case?
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Direct and Indirect Effects Direct Effects • Increased risk of suicide • Increased risk of preterm
birth (4‐fold increase with comorbid depression and PTSD)
• Increased risk of heightened
stress reactivity in offspring
Indirect Effects • Greater use of alcohol,
cigarettes and other addictive substances
• Less healthy nutrition • Higher body mass index • Less prenatal care • Reduced breastfeeding
1. Le Strat Y et al: J Affect Disord 135(1-3):128-38, 2011; 2. Barker ED et al: Br J Psychiatry 203(6):417-21, 2013; 3. McPhie S et al: Midwifery 2014 Jul 19 Epub; 4. Kim HG et al: Arch Womens Ment Health 9(2):103-7, 2006; 5. Grigoriadis S: J Clin Psychiatry 74(4):321-41, 2013; 6. Yonkers KA et al: JAMA Psychiatry 71(8):897-904, 2014; 7. Dennis CL, McQueen K: Pediatrics 123(4):e736-51, 2009 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Long‐Term Effects on Offspring • More emotional problems and difficult
temperaments
• More behavioral problems • Reduced cognitive functioning Barker ED et al: Brit J Psychiatry 203(6):417-21, 2013; 3. O’Donnell KJ et al: Psychoneuroendocrinol 38:1630-8, 2013 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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What are the possible perinatal risks of venlafaxine?
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Based on Methodologically Sound Studies to Date… • Venlafaxine likely doesn’t increase the risk of Birth defects
Miscarriage, stillbirth or neonatal death Cognitive impairment or behavioral problems Autism
• Venlafaxine might increase the risk of Premature labor (same as untreated depression)
Postpartum hemorrhage (though more likely due to other confounds)
• Venlafaxine (near end of pregnancy) likely does increase the risk of Transient neonatal side effects, including respiratory distress Neonatal persistent pulmonary hypertension
Grigoriadis et al. J Clin Psychiatry 74(4):293-308, 2013; Einarson TR et al: J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol 19(2):334-48, 2012; Huybrechts KF et al: New Eng J Med 370:2397-407, 2014; Petersen I et al: J Clin Psychiatry 77(1):e36-42, 2016 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Lynn feels she should “tough it out” regarding her own symptoms in order to protect her baby. She is highly distressed that her baby could experience side effects or pulmonary hypertension, which she read about online.
What can you explain to help her gain perspective on these adverse effects?
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• Statistically significant risks have different levels of clinical significance, depending on effect size • Clinicians can help patients place risks in perspective Neonatal antidepressant side effects usually last 1 – 2 days Antidepressant exposure raises risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension from 2/1,000 to at most 2.9/1,000 http://greenestreetfriends.org/student-life/life-skills; Ng QX et al: J Womens Health (Larchmt) 28(3):331-8, 2019; Masarwa R et al: Am J Obstet Gynecol 220(1):57, 2019; Ross LE et al: JAMA Psychiatry 70(4):436-43, 2013; Wisner KL et al: Am J Psychiatry 166:557, 2009 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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After you explain the risks of untreated symptoms, Lynn is more inclined to continue an antidepressant while pregnant. Her friend, who’s also pregnant, said her obstetrician recommended sertraline during pregnancy because it’s well studied. She asks you whether it would make sense to switch from venlafaxine to sertraline. How do you respond?
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Switching Antidepressants • Based on a review of Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs) from 12
countries, when starting an antidepressant de novo in a woman who is pregnant or might become pregnant, some are preferred due to being well studied and having favorable safety profiles (e.g., sertraline).
• That said, if a woman is already taking an effective
antidepressant, switching is discouraged.
The new antidepressant may not work for her, risking symptom
recurrence at a vulnerable time.
Her fetus would then be exposed to both the risks of symptoms AND the
risks of medication.
Molenaar NM et al: Aust N Z J Psychiatry 52(4):320-7, 2018 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 2 Janelle is planning a pregnancy. She has severe generalized anxiety disorder, but has been much less symptomatic for the past 2 years while taking escitalopram. She had planned to stay on it while pregnant until reading that antidepressants increase the risk of autism. Her nephew has autism, and she can’t bear the thought of doing that to a child. How do you help her think this through? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Do Antidepressants Cause Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)? • Studies with major confounds showed an association between
SSRI use during pregnancy and ASD in offspring
• Since then, there have been more careful studies Sibling controls Propensity matching
• Most of those found no association • One study found an increased small risk after antidepressant
exposure (AOR 1.45); if that’s a true finding, refraining from antidepressants would reduce the risk of autism by 0.08% • Risk of autism in offspring is greater in women with psychiatric disorders who don’t use SSRIs than in women who do Probably Not © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 3 Aimee has a history of anorexia nervosa and severe depressive episodes, both now well controlled with psychotherapy and fluoxetine 80 mg daily. She is in her 32nd week of a healthy pregnancy, taking fluoxetine regularly. She knows she’s never supposed to abruptly stop fluoxetine, yet she realizes that when her baby is born the baby will abruptly stop. She asks you if her baby could have withdrawal problems. What do you tell her? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Neonatal Side Effects from Maternal Antidepressant Use • Noted in up to 25‐30% of exposed infants 22% of exposed infants had mild side effects 3% of exposed infants had severe side effects
• May be due to abrupt discontinuation or hepatic immaturity • Influenced by baby’s genotype • Begin within minutes to hours after birth • Usually last 1 – 2 days; rarely last 2 – 6 weeks • Can happen from any antidepressant Forsberg L, Navér L, Gustafsson LL et al; McLean K, Murphy KE, Dalfen A et al, Oberlander TF; Warburton W, Misri S et al; McDonagh MS, Matthews A, Phillipi C et al. © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Neonatal Side Effects Reported from In Utero Antidepressant Exposure • Sleep changes
• Respiratory distress*
(OR=2.20)
• Fewer different
• Tremor (OR=7.89)*
behavioral states
• Jitteriness, restlessness,
shivering
• Increased or decreased
muscle tone
• Hypoglycemia
• Eating difficulties • Seizures • Prolonged QT interval • Cardiac arrhythmias
*Significantly different with antidepressant exposure Forsberg L, Navér L, Gustafsson LL et al; McLean K, Murphy KE, Dalfen A et al, Oberlander TF; Warburton W, Misri S et al; McDonagh MS, Matthews A, Phillipi C et al. © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 4 Doreen has developed new‐onset major depression in the 30th week of gestation of her first pregnancy. She’s considering taking an antidepressant. She’s not concerned about birth defects at this stage of pregnancy, and isn’t too worried about the possibility of brief infant side effects at birth. But she wants to know if ANY serious problems could happen to her baby from antidepressant exposure at this stage. What do you tell her? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Antidepressants and Risk of Neonatal Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension • Nearly all studies find increased risk of neonatal
persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) after SSRI exposure in late pregnancy
• Risk is only found with serotonergic antidepressants • Animal study finds same risk and identifies possible
mechanism
• Rare General population prevalence 2/1000 Combined reported cases after SSRI exposure at most 2.9/1000 1,615 women would need to take SSRIs for 1 baby to have this
adverse effect
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Case 5
Robin is planning a pregnancy. For the past 3 years she’s taken paroxetine for panic disorder, with excellent results. A previous trial of fluoxetine was ineffective. She doesn’t want to start having panic attacks again. She asks whether she should switch to a different medication, or discontinue medication altogether and try psychotherapy. What do you advise?
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Peripartum Panic Disorder • No increased risk of pregnancy complications • Symptoms may worsen postpartum • Clinical presentation Catastrophic interpretations of altered bodily sensations Vomiting/anxiety cycle Excessive worry about effects of symptoms on fetus, on childbirth, and on
parenting
With agoraphobia: reduced prenatal care; difficulty leaving home to give birth Yonkers KA et al: JAMA Psychiatry 74(11):1145-52, 2017; Bandelow B et al: Eur Psychiatry 21(7):495-500, 2006 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Should Paroxetine Be Avoided During Pregnancy? Findings about teratogenicity are inconsistent. However… • Several meta‐analyses and a large study find a specific link between paroxetine
use during pregnancy and cardiovascular (CV) malformations in offspring.
• In a (non‐systematic) World Health Organization database, paroxetine was
associated with more neonatal side effects than other antidepressants.
• Weight gain and sedation, common side effects with paroxetine, can increase
risks during pregnancy and postpartum.
• It is the only antidepressant with a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
advisory cautioning about its use during pregnancy.
Bottom line: not contraindicated during pregnancy, but not first choice if psychotherapy or other agents are effective Grigoriadis et al. J Clin Psychiatry 74(4):293-308, 2013; Bar-Oz B et al: Clin Ther 29(5):918-26, 2007; Wurst KE et al Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 88(3):159-70, 2010; Myles N et al: Aust New Zealand J Psychiatry 47(11):1002-1012, 2013; Ban L et al: Br J Obstet Gynecol 2014 Mar 11 Epub; Sloot WN et al. Reprod Toxicol 28(2):270-82, 2009; Sanz EJ et al. Lancet 365(9458):451-3, 2005 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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CBT for Perinatal Panic Disorder • Psychoeducation Normal somatic sensations during pregnancy; overlap with panic symptoms Specific symptoms that warrant a call to the prenatal clinic or emergency room
• Near the end of pregnancy, focus on slowing rather than deepening breathing • Self‐chosen imagery during obstetric exams and labor • Exposure for agoraphobia Initiate prenatal care with home visits Accompany patient to the prenatal clinic at first Foster specific preparation for the hospital visit Wiegartz PS et al: The Pregnancy & Postpartum Anxiety Workbook. Oakland: New Harbinger, 2009; Robinson L et al: Can J Psychiatry 37:623-6, 1992 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 6 Chantel has hyperemesis gravidarum (extreme nausea and vomiting during pregnancy). She has had to be hospitalized 3 times for intravenous nutritional support. She is now in her 23rd week of gestation and can’t imagine making it through the rest of the pregnancy. She has developed severe major depression and intense anxiety. She’d like pharmacotherapy but is terrified that an antidepressant could worsen her hyperemesis. What do you advise? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Mirtazapine During Pregnancy • Unlike other serotonergic antidepressants,
nausea is not a typical side effect of mirtazapine
• Can be administered as a disintegrating tablet • No increased risk of birth defects • Increased rate of preterm birth (but confounds
not ruled out)
• Sedation and weight gain are common side
effects
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Case 7
Jaronda and Shawn come to see you because they’d like to start a family together, but they’re concerned about Jaronda’s risk of postpartum depression. Jaronda’s mother, sister, and maternal aunt all had severe postpartum depressive episodes. Jaronda has no history of mental health problems.
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Questions to Ask • What additional information is important to
ask about?
• What interventions can reduce the risk of
postpartum depression?
• Which would you recommend for Jaronda,
and why?
• How would you involve Shawn? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Preventing Perinatal Depression: Psychotherapy • Interpersonal Psychotherapy Enhances interpersonal skills, ability to tolerate loss, coping with perinatal role
transitions
Strong evidence for preventing and treating perinatal depression Perinatal adaptation: Reach Out, Stand Strong, Essentials for New Mothers (ROSE)
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Helps counter “perfect mother” cognitions Perinatal adaptation: Mothers and Babies
Strongly recommended by US Preventive Services Task Force https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/perinatal-depression-preventiveinterventions?ds=1&s=perinatal depression © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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What Else Prevents Postpartum Depression? • Antidepressants (sertraline specifically studied) • Estrogen? Posited to slow the otherwise abrupt postpartum decline Promising preliminary data; not adequately studied
• No better than placebo Progestogens Omega‐3 essential fatty acid supplementation Werner E et al: Arch Womens Ment Health 18(1):41-60, 2015 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 8 Molly comes to you with intense distress. She confesses that she has repeated thoughts about smothering her 2‐month‐old baby with a pillow. She feels she is horrible and an unfit mother and has become very depressed. She has told her husband Ray about the depressive feelings, but not about the thoughts; she believes he would divorce her if he knew. She avoids being alone with the baby. Ray is afraid he’ll lose his job due to time spent at home; he coaxed Molly to meet with you. How do you approach this case? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Targets of CBT for Perinatal OCD • Cognitive work Probability bias: Molly erroneously believes that having the
thought increases the chance she would actually smother her baby, which is why she avoids being along with the baby
Morality bias: Molly believes she is terrible and an unfit
mother just because she has a bad thought, despite no bad actions
• Behavioral work By avoiding being alone with her baby, Molly is reinforcing
her anxiety and her belief that she can’t parent effectively
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Molly would like to do Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) psychotherapy, but feels her anxiety is too intense. She asks if there’s a medication that could help, that she could take while breastfeeding. Which would you suggest?
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Medication
% of Maternal Dose to Breastfeeding Baby
Bupropion
2.0% - 5.1%
Possible seizures
Citalopram
2.5% - 9.4%
Uneasy sleep, drowsiness, irritability, weight loss, restlessness
Reported Side Effects to Breastfeeding Babies*
Desipramine
1.0%
None
Desvenlafaxine
5.5% - 8.1%
None
Duloxetine
0.14% - 0.82%
None
Escitalopram
3.9% - 7.9%
Enterocolitis
Fluoxetine
1.1% - 12.0%
Excessive crying, irritability, vomiting, watery stools, difficulty sleeping, tremor, somnolence, hypotonia, decreased weight gain, hyperglycemia, hyperactivity, reduced rooting, reduced nursing, grunting, moaning More rapid weight gain, sleeping through the night earlier
Mirtazapine
0.6% - 3.5%
Nortriptyline
1.3%
None
Paroxetine
0.1% -4.3%
Agitation, difficulty feeding, irritability, sleepiness, constipation, SIADH
Sertraline
0.4% - 2.3%
Benign sleep myoclonus, transient agitation
Venlafaxine
3.0% - 11.8%
None
*Based on case reports or case series of exposure as monotherapy during breastfeeding; no causal relationship is established in most cases
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Molly is hesitant to take a daily medication. She asks if it would be okay to use a benzodiazepine as needed instead. She asks whether it would make sense to “pump and dump” breast milk after taking the benzodiazepine so it wouldn’t affect her baby.
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Benzodiazepines and Breastfeeding • Sedation is the main reported side effect (41 weeks when mood stabilizer was maintained and only 9 weeks when treatment was discontinued (p50% likelihood of having another postpartum psychotic episode1
Family History – In a study of 152 women with bipolar I disorder2 74% of those with a first‐degree relative who had experienced postpartum psychosis developed postpartum psychosis 30% of those without this family history developed postpartum psychosis 1. Sit D et al: J Womens Health (Larchmt): 15(4):352-68, 2006; 2. Jones I, Craddock N: Am J Psychiatry 158(6):913-7, 2001 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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After considerable psychoeducation, and coaxing by her relatives, Ana agrees to take an antipsychotic mood stabilizer, but insists that it must be the one that is least present in breast milk. Which do you recommend?
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Mood Stabilizers/Antipsychotics and Breastfeeding
*Depending on available data, reported as either estimated weight-adjusted per cent of the mother’s dose ingested by a breastfeeding baby, or as infant serum level range of the medication and any active metabolites. **Based on case reports or case series of exposure as monotherapy during breastfeeding; no causal relationship is established in most cases. © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 5
Renita has bipolar disorder, well‐controlled on lamotrigine. She just learned she’s pregnant. She read online that lamotrigine causes cleft lip in babies exposed during pregnancy, so she emails to let you know she’s stopping it. How do you respond?
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Lamotrigine (LTG) During Pregnancy • Despite prior concerns, it does NOT increase risk of oral clefts Concern arose from North American Antiepileptic Drug (AED) Pregnancy
Registry, in which infants whose mothers were prescribed LTG had significantly more oral clefts than comparison infants1
A population‐based case‐control study surveying 3.9 million births from
19 registries did not confirm this association2
Subsequent studies and meta‐analysis also have not found this link3‐6
• Behavioral teratogenicity No increased neurodevelopmental or cognitive abnormalities in children
exposed in utero7
1. Holmes LB et al: Neurol 70(22 Pt 2):2152-8, 2008; 2. Dolk H et al: Neurol 71(10:714-22, 2008; 3. Cunnington MC et al: Neurol 76 (21):1817-23, 2011; 4. Mølgaard-Nielsen D et al: JAMA 305(19):1996-2002, 2011; 5. Veiby G et al: J Neurol 261(3):579-88, 2014; 6. Pariente G et al: CNS Drugs 31(6):439-50, 2017; 7. Cummings C et al: Arch Dis Child 96(7):643-7, 2011 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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After hearing your evidence‐based information about risks of untreated symptoms and risks of lamotrigine, Renita decides to stay on lamotrigine. She wonders if she should lower the dose, “to be on the safe side”. What do you advise?
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Lamotrigine: Perinatal Pharmacokinetics • Pregnancy lowers serum levels
of lamotrigine.
• Average reduction is 50% ‐ 60%,
with considerable individual variation.
• Begins early in pregnancy; most
pronounced by 3rd trimester.
• Serum level increases
postpartum; average increase from end of pregnancy to 5 weeks postpartum is 154%.
Tomson T et al: Epilepsia 54(3):405-14, 2013; Clark CT et al: Am J Psychiatry 170(11):1240-7, 2013 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 6
Greta has bipolar disorder, well controlled with carbamazepine. Ever since starting carbamazepine she’s bruised easily, but thought the benefit well worth this side effect. Now she’s planning pregnancy and asks whether excessive bleeding could be a bigger problem. She also asks about any risk of birth defects. What do you tell her?
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Carbamazepine (CBZ) During Pregnancy • Increased risk of neural tube defects and other
anomalies
Lower risk than valproate Higher risk than lamotrigine
• Probably no behavioral teratogenicity • Decreased neonatal size • Transient hepatic function abnormalities (case reports) Weston J et al: Cochrane Database Syst Rev 11/7/16 Jentink J et al: BMJ 341:c6581, 2010; Banach R et al: Drug Saf 33(1):73-9, 2010; Pennell PB et al: Epilepsy Behav 24:449-56, 2012; Kaaja E et al: Neurol 58(4):549-53, 2002; Frey B et al: Ann Pharmacother 36(4):644-7, 2002; Harden CL et al. Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1247-55 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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A Preventable Complication of Carbamazepine? • Carbamazepine depletes vitamin K, which is essential for
clotting ability.
• Maternal vitamin K deficiency may also affect fetal mid‐
facial and nasal septum growth.
• Unclear whether exposed infants are at greater risk of
hemorrhage or malformations.
• Unclear whether maternal Vitamin K supplementation
during pregnancy can reduce risks.
Kazmin A et al: Can Fam Physician 56(12):1291-2, 2010; livestrong.com © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Carbamazepine (CBZ) During Pregnancy: Guidelines to Reduce Risk • Supplement folate before and during pregnancy • Administer vitamin K to the newborn per pediatric
recommendations
• For exposure during neural tube formation (14‐35
days after conception), maternal alpha fetoprotein, ultrasound or amniocentesis for neural tube disorder evaluation
• Obtain free (not total) serum levels when needed Jentink J et al: BMJ 341:c6581, 2010; Banach R et al: Drug Saf 33(1):73-9, 2010; Pennell PB et al: Epilepsy Behav 24:44956, 2012; Kaaja E et al: Neurol 58(4):549-53, 2002; Frey B et al: Ann Pharmacother 36(4):644-7, 2002; Harden CL et al. Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1247-55 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 7 At a routine check‐up, Hattie tells her obstetrician/gynecologist, Dr. Martin, that she and her husband Jerome are now trying to conceive. Dr. Martin asks you to meet with Hattie and talk her out of this. Hattie has schizophrenia, well controlled on olanzapine. Dr. Martin is concerned about genetic transmission of schizophrenia, risks of olanzapine, risks of Hattie destabilizing, and risks of psychotic symptoms to the fetus. How do you approach this? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Perinatal Risks of Schizophrenia • Increased obstetric complications • Many indirect factors may contribute More often unpartnered Higher pre‐pregnancy body mass index More likely to smoke, drink alcohol, and use other addictive substances More likely to have abnormal glucose tolerance tests
• Heritability Estimated at 79% 6x more likely to develop schizophrenia if a first‐degree relative has it
• Ethics Principle of justice guides us to treat schizophrenia no differently than other heritable, chronic
illnesses
Simoila L et al: Arch Womens Ment Health 23(1):91-100, 2020; Chou IJ et al: Schiz Bull 43(5):1070-8, 2017; Hilker R et al: Biol Psychiatry 83(6):492-8, 2018; Miller LJ: Psychiatr Clin N Amer 32(2):259-70, 2009 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Assessing Hattie’s Risk Factors • She has excellent insight into her illness and takes
olanzapine regularly.
• Since starting olanzapine, she is rarely symptomatic and
has had no high‐risk symptoms.
• She is partnered (married to Jerome, who is supportive). • She does not smoke, drink alcohol, or use other addictive
substances.
• She has become overweight since starting olanzapine. • Several blood relatives have diabetes. © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Perinatal Use of Olanzapine • No increased risk of congenital anomalies • Increased risk of Excessive weight gain Gestational diabetes
• Breastfeeding Baby is estimated to ingest 0.3 – 1.1% of the mother’s
dose, adjusted for weight
Case reports of somnolence, irritability, tremor
insomnia
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Medications for Substance Use Disorders
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Case 1
Jacinda is a 27‐year‐old woman with a history of recurrent major depressive episodes and persistent depressive disorder, much improved since taking fluoxetine. She is planning a pregnancy, and for this reason wants to quit smoking cigarettes. She asks you about switching from fluoxetine to bupropion. What do you advise?
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Risks of Cigarette Smoking During Pregnancy • Low birth weight • Preterm birth • Perinatal loss (miscarriage, stillbirth) • Sudden infant death syndrome • Possible increase in cardiovascular birth defects
• Reducing number of cigarettes smoked might not help if women then inhale more deeply • Most women who still smoke after their first prenatal visit have difficulty quitting without medical intervention Iokakeimidis N et al: Hellenic J Cardiol 60(1):11-5, 2019 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Perinatal Use of Bupropion • May help with smoking cessation; unclear if it helps prevent relapse • Less well studied in pregnancy than serotonin‐selective reuptake inhibitors • Most studies don’t show increased risk of birth defects, but several show increased risk of
cardiovascular anomalies after first trimester exposure compared to non‐exposed infants or other antidepressant exposure
• Other possible risks Miscarriage Lowered seizure threshold (problematic with pre‐eclampsia) Attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in offspring (might be confound by indication) Case reports of fetal cardiac arrhythmia and neonatal hyperinsulinism Stotts AL et al: Am J Perinatol 32(4):351-6, 2015; Louik C et al: Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 23(10):1066-75, 2014; Thyagarajan V et al: Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 21(11):1240-2, 2012; Alwan S et al Am J Obstet Gynecol 203(1):e1-6, 2010; Chun-Fai-Chan B et al. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192(3):932-6; Ross S & Williams D: Expert Opin Drug Saf 4(6):995-1003, 2005; Figueroa R: J Dev Behav Pediatr 31(8):641-8, 2010; Leventhal K et al: Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 89(7):980-1, 2010; Gisslen T et al: J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 24(9-10):819-22, 2011 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Jacinda opts to remain on fluoxetine and not switch to bupropion. She’d like information on other smoking cessations options as she plans her pregnancy. Counseling hasn’t helped her in the past; she’s interested in a medication option.
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Smoking Cessation in Pregnancy • Varenicline Studies to date show no evidence of increased birth defects, though data
are very limited
Short term use while planning a pregnancy could be helpful Caution in patient with prior depression; can increase suicidality
• Nicotine replacement Eliminates exposure to non‐nicotine toxins in cigarettes No clear data about effects on pregnancy outcome Gum gives less fetal exposure than patch
• Don’t give up on nonpharmacologic counseling; pregnancy can
enhance motivation!
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Smoking Cessation in Pregnancy: Other Considerations • Electronic nicotine delivery systems (vaping) Many pregnant women believe vaping is safer than cigarettes. This
perception can reduce motivation to quit.
Data are limited but suggest vaping is higher risk than abstaining but
lower risk than cigarettes – e.g., a study found that vaping reduced risk for preterm birth compared to cigarettes, but had similar risk for fetal growth restriction.
• Excessive weight gain can happen after smoking cessation and
can independently increase perinatal risks. Proactively forming a plan for eating patterns and exercise can help.
Wang X et al: Prev Med 134:106041, 2020 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 2 Patricia is an Army Veteran who started drinking 6‐8 glasses of alcohol daily after returning from deployment to Afghanistan to cope with flashbacks and anxiety stemming from combat trauma. She now comes for help achieving and maintaining sobriety because she just discovered she is pregnant, in her 14th week of gestation. She explains that AA and other nonpharmacologic addiction treatments have never sufficed for her; she wants medication‐assisted treatment after detox. What do you advise? © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Risks of Alcohol Use During Pregnancy • Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Major congenital malformations Cognitive impairment Distinct facial features which lessen over time
• Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) Spectrum of milder symptoms without full FAS
• Miscarriage (with 5 or more drinks per week) • Stillbirth (more than 6‐fold increase with 5 or more drinks per
week)
• Newborn infections (with 7 or more drinks per week) © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Medications for Alcohol Use Disorders: Perinatal Considerations • Limited data on effects during pregnancy of the 3 FDA‐approved medications • Naltrexone Not studied specifically for pregnant women with alcohol use disorders In pregnant women with opioid use disorders, no differences in congenital anomalies,
miscarriage or stillbirth compared to women using methadone or buprenorphine
Associated with increased urogenital anomalies compared to no opioid exposure, in one
study
• Acamprosate No increased risk of congenital anomalies or low birth weight in one small study
• Disulfiram Works by inhibiting metabolism of alcohol, causing buildup of acetaldehydes; unknown
what this might do to a fetus
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Don’t Give Up On Nonpharmacologic Interventions! • Motivational interviewing • Treat underlying conditions – e.g. trauma‐
focused psychotherapy for PTSD
• Address barriers to care Fear of custody loss Stigma Logistics – lack of childcare, transportation Frazer Z et al: Drug Alcohol Depend 205:107652, 2019 © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Case 3
Kasey has a longstanding heroin addiction. When she became pregnant, she started methadone and has successfully abstained from heroin. She is now in her third trimester. She asks if she should taper and discontinue methadone to prevent neonatal abstinence syndrome. What do you advise?
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Opioid Use Disorders During Pregnancy • Higher risk with an addictive pattern of use, due
to cycles of intoxication and withdrawal.
• Addictive‐pattern opioid use is associated with
preterm birth, low birth weight, reduced infant head circumference and sudden infant death syndrome.
• Confounds are difficult to rule out! • Neonatal abstinence syndrome can occur; it can
be managed if severe with administration and tapering of opioids.
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Methadone Use During Pregnancy • Improves pregnancy outcomes compared to addictive‐pattern opioid use • Studies comparing methadone maintenance versus methadone taper and
discontinuation during pregnancy
Methadone withdrawal leads to high relapse rates and increased risk of stillbirth Methadone maintenance leads to better outcomes
• Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is experienced by the majority of
newborns exposed to methadone throughout pregnancy
• The likelihood and severity of NAS appear to be dose‐dependent • Buprenorphine is a viable alternative Crosses placenta less Less neonatal abstinence syndrome © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Medications for ADHD
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Case 1
Brynn is a 27‐year‐old woman who has had ADHD since childhood, first diagnosed in high school. Before using medication, she got in two car accidents due to distractibility and inattention, and was struggling in school. At age 19 she began methylphenidate. Since then, she successfully completed a PhD program and works as a biomedical engineer. She’s had no difficulty driving. She’s planning a pregnancy and wants your advice about methylphenidate. What do you suggest?
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ADHD and the Perinatal Period • No studies of the effects of untreated ADHD symptoms during pregnancy. • Functional impairment depends on illness severity and attentional demand
(how much focus is needed for the patient’s social and occupational roles).
• With driving, impaired focus could be life‐threatening. • Life transitions during pregnancy and postpartum can change attentional
demand. Many new mothers with ADHD find it challenging to keep track of everything, especially with sleep deprivation and less structure.
• If ADHD symptoms impair relationships, they may detract from partner
collaboration and social support during the transition to motherhood.
• If ADHD symptoms reduce self‐care (e.g., preparing healthy meals, arriving to
prenatal appointments on time) they could indirectly adversely affect pregnancy outcome.
• The effect of ADHD on functioning may be strongly influenced by structure and
social support.
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“Mommy Brain”??? • During pregnancy, many women report impaired attention, but
most studies don’t find cognitive differences between pregnant and nonpregnant women (some find subtle differences).
• If there are subtle impairments, women with ADHD may be
more affected.
• Memory and attention functions may be improved by
motherhood.
Perinatal rats show improved spatial learning compared to age‐matched
nulliparous female rats (better at finding food in the wild!).
In humans, brain imaging shows increased gray matter volume in
prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, hypothalamus, substantia nigra, and amygdala at 3‐4 months postpartum as compared to 2‐4 weeks postpartum. Positive maternal perceptions of the newborn predict these increases. © 2021 Postpartum Support International https://www.postpartum.net/
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Perinatal Use of Stimulants • Data are limited; most studies have confounds including comorbidities and
other medication exposures.
• Possible increased risks of preeclampsia, preterm birth, low birth weight, fetal
hypoxia, seizures, neonatal intensive care unit admissions and cardiovascular malformations (the latter shown with methylphenidate but not amphetamines).
• Absolute risks appear to be small. • No systematic studies of long‐term neurobehavioral effects on offspring. • Stimulants can reduce maternal appetite, potentially interfering with normal
pregnancy weight gain.
• Breastfeeding babies Methylphenidate: